Imperialism: Causes, Factors, and Global Impact
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is the policy of extending a country’s domination over other regions. The conquering country is called the mother country (metropolis), and the territories it acquires are its colonies. This policy has ancient origins (and the term ‘imperialism’ is related to ‘empire’). However, it began to be applied on a worldwide scale in the 19th century.
In the Early Modern Period, European countries like Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Dutch Republic were already colonial powers. Around 1870, a new phase in the expansion of imperialism began when imperial powers rapidly took control of territories around the world.
Britain and France were the pioneers of imperial expansion, but they were soon joined by Germany, Italy, Belgium, Russia, the United States, and Japan. In contrast, Spain lost its remaining colonies in America and the Pacific.
In 1800, about 35% of the Earth’s land was controlled by Europe and the United States; by 1914, it had reached 84%. In Africa, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. In Asia, the Ottoman Empire, China, and Persia were not colonies, but Western countries forced them to grant trade advantages.
Economic and Demographic Factors of Imperialism
- Industrialization: European countries looked for areas in which they could invest capital for a greater profit than they received in the mother country, obtain cheap raw materials, and sell their industrial products. The new colonies were ideal for these purposes.
- Migration: Population grew during the Industrial Revolution, but there was not enough work for everyone. Many Europeans went to live permanently in the colonies. The transport revolution made migration easier because transport became faster, more efficient, and cheaper.
Religious Factors of Imperialism
- Conversion: Native populations around the world had their own religious beliefs, which 19th-century Europeans considered ‘primitive’. Converting these peoples to Christianity was used to justify imperialism. Hundreds of Catholic and Protestant missions were founded.
Political Factors of Imperialism
- Strategic Goals: Imperial expansion was also motivated by geopolitical interests. For example, Britain had a maritime empire, so it tried to rule areas along the main sea routes. Russia wanted to establish routes to the sea that were free of ice.
- Competition: There was competition among the great powers to colonize new territories. They did not want another empire to dominate a region or gain all the profits from colonies.
- Prestige: The great powers sometimes tried to influence public opinion. They believed that the colonization of new territories could make up for a humiliating defeat or increase nationalist sentiment at home.
Ideological and Scientific Factors of Imperialism
- Racism: This was deep-rooted in the Western world in the 19th century. Westerners believed the white race was superior and that this gave them the right to rule over other peoples. They considered that the people in other parts of the world were primitive and inferior, and that it was their mission to ‘civilize’ them.
- Exploration: Scientific curiosity also contributed to imperialism. Geographic societies were created in Britain, France, the United States, and Germany. These groups went on scientific expeditions all over the world.
Once a territory had been found and explored, the country which organized the expedition claimed the right to conquer and exploit it.