Imperialism: Causes, Organization, and Global Impact
Causes of Imperialism
The world was divided into industrialized and non-industrialized countries, leading to economic imperialism. Major powers like the USA, Japan, and Europe imposed their influence, creating dependency. Europe possessed superior technical, commercial, and financial capabilities, along with extensive geographical reach.
A) Demographic Vitality
Demographic factors, such as population pressure, fueled imperialism. Improved transportation and psychological factors led to increased emigration to other continents.
B) Economic Factors
Countries like the UK, France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany engaged in imperialism to invest capital in new territories. Railways, infrastructure, and loans to local governments were common investments. The 1873 European crisis led to protectionist economic policies, prompting European nations to seek new markets, resources, and commodities through colonial expansion. Raw materials were extracted cheaply from colonies using exploited labor, transformed, and sold back at higher prices.
C) Political Factors
Imperialism was driven by a quest for prestige and global domination. It also served to divert attention from domestic problems. For example, the UK aimed to protect its shipping routes, establish settlements, and enhance its prestige.
D) Ideological Factors
Ideological justifications for imperialism included the idea of a “civilized world” and the mission to Christianize African populations. Spain and Italy sought to revive their imperialist past. Intellectuals like Rudyard Kipling supported colonization, while others, such as Jaurès and Clemenceau in France, criticized it. The Second International condemned imperialism as capitalist exploitation, but this had limited public impact.
The World Organization
Countries involved in colonization included Russia, Belgium, Spain, Italy, France, UK, Germany, Holland, USA, Japan, Portugal, and Denmark. Independent countries included China, Mongolia, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Pakistan, Liberia, and South American nations.
The Formation of the British Empire
Around 1850, the UK controlled key shipping routes and strategic locations like Gibraltar, Corfu, Malta, and Cyprus. They held territories in Africa (South Africa, Nigeria, Seychelles), plantation colonies (Belize, Guyana, the Caribbean, Jamaica), settlement colonies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand), and a large colony in India for cotton farming. Controlling navigation routes between Great Britain and India was crucial. The opening of the Suez Canal by the French sparked British interest in the Arabian Peninsula. To protect India, they colonized surrounding areas like Burma and Afghanistan. The shift to oil-powered ships further increased interest in the Arabian Peninsula. The British aimed to create a continuous empire in Africa from Egypt to South Africa, leading to conflicts like the Boer War with Dutch settlers. By the early 20th century, the British Empire was vast, ruling a quarter of the world’s population. After World War I, they acquired former German colonies. Maintaining such a large empire posed financial challenges, weakening Great Britain. The focus remained on exploiting colonies for industrial purposes.
The French Empire
France focused on Africa, starting with Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. The Suez Canal, a major engineering feat, connected the Mediterranean and Red Seas, challenging British interests. In the early 20th century, France sought raw materials and controlled trade routes. Germany, Japan, Russia, Portugal, Belgium, Spain, and Italy followed similar expansionist paths.
The Division of Africa
Before 1885, Africa was largely unexplored. Europeans occupied coastal areas. Between 1885 and 1914, European powers conquered and divided the continent, except for Liberia and Ethiopia. Initial coastal occupation led to inland expansion, aiming to reach opposite coasts. The Berlin Conference (1885), organized by Bismarck, addressed the legal aspects of territorial claims and aimed to regulate colonialism and prevent conflicts. The conference established that effective occupation, including administrative presence, granted ownership. This accelerated colonization. Egypt, following the Nile Valley, initiated the advance. The Mediterranean coast saw divisions among France, Britain, and Italy. The West Coast became a source of conflict between Britain and France. The East Coast, with its resources, attracted various powers, with Belgium gaining significant wealth. The West Coast proved richer than the East.
The Organization of Colonial Empires
Imperialism stemmed from 15th-century colonialism, involving conquest, organization, and exploitation. Conquest was often facilitated by superior forces and local alliances. Organization involved establishing administrations, with governors and viceroys playing key roles. Companies with privileges managed and exploited territories. Administrative procedures included:
- Associations: Maintaining administrative rights (e.g., Africa)
- Protectorates: Respecting local authorities in theory while controlling the economy and defense (e.g., Egypt)
- Colonies: Operating as monopolies, controlling resources and governing territories (e.g., India)
- Settlement colonies: Populated by immigrants from the metropolis (e.g., Canada, Australia)
In all cases, the ruling power held ultimate authority. The “civilized world” ideology masked economic interests. Colonization provided cheap goods to the metropolis but also led to resource exploitation. It benefited wealthy ruling classes. Building empires required increased expenditure, financed by the populace but benefiting the leaders. Larger empires meant higher costs.