Imperialism in the 19th Century: Causes and Consequences
Imperialism and Its Causes in the 19th Century
During the nineteenth century, the Second Industrial Revolution transformed the economy of European powers. Technical innovations, new ways of organizing work, and banking growth led to increased production, trade, and improved transportation. Taking advantage of their technical superiority and mastery of the financial world, developed countries occupied territories in Africa and Asia, creating colonial empires in lands without organized states. This settlement meant the economic exploitation of the resources of these lands and their political dominance.
Causes: Colonialism had a fundamentally economic motivation, but other factors, including political and social ones, were also involved.
Viewpoints:
- Economic: Europe needed to sell surplus production (searching for new markets). They had to buy raw materials and wanted to invest surplus capital in other places with cheap labor to allow for larger profits.
- Demographic: Population growth in Europe led to overcrowding, difficulties in finding work, and social tensions. Colonies offered the possibility for people to emigrate to other lands to improve their living conditions and find work.
- Political: The borders of Europe stabilized, so territorial expansion had to be done outside of Europe. Major powers competed for political and military control of geographic areas of economic or strategic interest.
- Ideological: Conservative nationalism advocated for the superiority of certain nations and the right to impose themselves on others. Europe spoke of a “civilizing mission,” carrying out works of education, health, and social peace. This often devolved into racism, as the white man was considered superior to other races and believed he could impose himself on the rest of humanity. Some intellectuals, mostly socialists, opposed colonialism, denouncing the brutal and inhuman exploitation of colonies and defending the right of peoples to decide their own fates.
Conquest, Organization, and Exploitation of Colonies
Much of the interior of Africa, Asia, and the oceans was practically unknown. The search for territories was made possible by travel and scientific-geographical explorations. Britain and France made significant expeditions. Explorers like Livingstone and Stanley explored Central Africa and mapped it. Once the territory was known, the conquest was quick and easy. European technical and military superiority was so great that indigenous resistance was weak. Rivalries between tribes and ethnic groups in occupied territories were used to recruit troops and pit them against each other. Once a territory was conquered, it was organized to be controlled and administered by the metropolis. There were three main types of colonies:
- Colonies of Exploitation: The metropolis focused on economic exploitation. The government was not local and exercised a European policy of occupation (a governor, military personnel, and officials kept order in the administration; the rest were indigenous). Colonizers appropriated land to build large plantations or to exploit deposits of copper, gold, coal, or diamonds. The settlers were European owners or major European companies, employing indigenous labor with low wages. The metropolis had exclusive use of the land.
- Colonies of Settlement: These were colonies where climatic conditions, small numbers of indigenous people, or special wealth attracted white populations who migrated to settle permanently. They had a special dependence on the metropolis, with a certain degree of autonomy within the government. The British Empire referred to these as dominions.
- Protectorates: These were territories where European occupiers maintained the existing state organization and the indigenous government. However, the metropolis created and imposed a parallel government that controlled and dominated the local government, reserving functions for defense and foreign policy.