Imperialism, WWI, and the Russian Revolution: 19th-20th Centuries
Imperialism and Colonial Empires: 19th and 20th Centuries
Between the 16th and 18th centuries was the era of the great colonial empires (Spain, Portugal, England, France, and Holland), the New Empire (Belgium, Germany, Italy), and two outside Europe (USA and Japan). England and France expanded their empires. Portugal, Holland, and Spain lost America and the Pacific Ocean. Factors behind the expansion were:
- Economic: Consequences of European industrialization. Countries sought places to invest their capital, get cheap raw materials, and markets for their products.
- Political: Colonies met the needs of the great powers, who wanted to strengthen their international prestige and nationalistic sentiments.
Imperialism
Imperialism is the extension of a country’s dominion over another. Principal countries involved were the British Empire, France, the USA, and Japan. At the 1885 Berlin Conference, African territory became European. In 1914, 84% of the world’s territory belonged to Westerners.
Causes of Imperialist Expansion
- Economic factors: Colonies were converted into profitable markets where customs duties were paid to sell without competition.
- Political factors: Powers conquered strategic locations to control maritime and land routes.
- Demographic factors: The population was growing too much, and governments could not control these migratory flows.
- Ideological factors: The sentiment of white race superiority, the ideal of civilizing peoples, or extending Christianity (evangelization).
Forms of Dominion
- Colonies: Subjected to the power that controlled the metropolis politically.
- Concessions: Through which the colonizing powers had commercial advantages.
- Protectorates: The colonizers controlled internal politics and wealth, and the natives controlled interior politics.
World War I
Antecedents of the War
- Territorial pretensions: France claimed territories from Germany, and Austria-Hungary needed the Balkans area.
- Economic growth of Germany: A danger to British hegemony (early 20th century).
- Nationalist ideologies: Confronted peoples with each other.
Towards the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, there was an armed peace, an increase in arms expenditures with the military, a prolongation of military service, and the promotion of warmongering and patriotic sentiment in the media and schools. The Triple Alliance was formed in 1882 (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (until 1914)), as was the Triple Entente (United Kingdom, France, and Russia). The war was triggered by the death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914.
In the First World War, there were 65 million soldiers, the use of new weapons, companies converted to make military supplies, and government propaganda.
Development of the War
War of movements: At the beginning, Germany attacked France but failed.
War of trenches or positions: The war became very hard because those in the trenches were continuously bombed and many died. Italy entered the fight. In 1917, Russia withdrew after the Bolshevik revolution, but the USA entered, supporting economically.
End of the war: Allied attacks on all fronts. On November 11, 1918, the peace treaty was signed, ending the war.
New Map of Europe
Holland lost all its colonies, the Duchy of Schleswig went to Denmark, and the corridor of Danzig and Posen to Poland. Austria-Hungary broke up into Austria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Hungary. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became independent from Russia. Poland reemerged. Italy kept Trentino and Istria. The Ottoman Empire was reduced to Turkey, losing some European territory. There were many human and material losses due to the war. The USA became the leading economic power worldwide.
The Russian Revolution
At the beginning of the 20th century, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia had a discontented population. Peasants had too much land and no housing, while industrial workers endured poor conditions, facing a minority of aristocrats who owned the land. In 1905, a revolt forced the Tsar to give up the Duma and make political and social reforms. There were two revolutions in 1917. The February Revolution ended the Tsar’s government, and the second revolution in October caused the fall of the provisional government set up by the first revolution, creating a communist dictatorship led by Lenin.
The February Revolution
The people’s discontent was due to Russia’s intervention in the war, which demonstrated a lack of military, political, and financial organization. There was a decline in farm production due to the mobilization of peasants. In February 1917, revolutions in Petrograd caused the Tsar (Nicholas II) to fall. The government passed into the hands of a provisional government formed by the Duma. Two opposing powers emerged: the provisional government led by the Mensheviks and the Soviets led by the Bolsheviks, whose leader was Lenin.
The October Revolution
In October, the Bolsheviks overthrew Kerensky because he did not carry out agrarian reform and wanted to continue the war.
Lenin
Lenin created a civil war situation due to the sinking of the Russian economy. He created the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed private property for peasants, but industry remained in the hands of the state. Lenin created the USSR.
Stalinism
After Lenin’s death, Stalin seized power and created a totalitarian system. He exercised a policy of terror through purges, which involved assassination or imprisonment in gulags. He carried out a Russification and centralist policy. His main objective was to turn the USSR into a great power through a planned economy based on five-year plans. He prohibited private property and collectivized agriculture through state farms (sovkhoz) and collective farms (kolkhoz). Large state industries were created.