Indian History: Zamindars, Non-Cooperation, and the Rise of Gandhi
Zamindars: Role and Functions in Mughal India
Zamindars played a crucial role in the rural society of Mughal India. They were landowners who lived on agricultural production and held milkiyat (property rights), often belonging to the upper castes. Interestingly, new Zamindars also emerged from lower castes over time.
Key Functions of Zamindars:
- Revenue Collection: They collected revenue from peasants on behalf of the Mughal emperor.
- Mediation: They acted as intermediaries between the king and the peasantry.
- Military Responsibilities: They were responsible for maintaining a local military force.
- Agricultural Development: They invested in the development of agricultural lands.
- Financial Support: They provided loans to farmers for agricultural purposes.
- Market Regulation: They organized weekly or fortnightly markets in villages for the sale of agricultural produce, including their own.
The Non-Cooperation Movement: Causes and Withdrawal
Reasons for Launching the Movement:
- To oppose the oppressive Rowlatt Act.
- To seek justice for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
- To support the Khilafat Movement.
- To attain Swaraj (self-rule).
Reasons for Withdrawal:
- The movement was withdrawn due to the violent incident at Chauri Chaura.
- Mahatma Gandhi, a staunch believer in non-violence, was deeply affected by the violence.
The Significance of the Dandi March
- Violation of Salt Law: The march symbolized the defiance of the British salt monopoly by manufacturing salt.
- Women’s Participation: It witnessed large-scale participation of women in the freedom struggle.
- Civil Disobedience: It sparked widespread civil disobedience across India.
The Problem of Separate Electorates
The demand for separate electorates by Dalits created a significant challenge. They sought reservation in separate electorates, similar to Muslims. In the Second Round Table Conference in 1931, Dalit leader Dr. B.R. Ambedkar argued that the Congress did not represent Dalits adequately. He emphasized the social and economic backwardness of Dalits and believed that separate electorates would empower them to demand their rights effectively.
Gandhi initially opposed separate electorates. However, a compromise was reached, and Congress eventually agreed to reserved seats for Dalits within the Congress framework.
Gandhi’s Transformation of the National Movement
Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role in transforming the Indian National Movement into a mass movement. Several factors contributed to this:
- Simple Lifestyle: His simple lifestyle resonated with the common people.
- Use of Hindi: Communicating in Hindi made him accessible to a wider audience.
- Leadership in Mass Movements: His leadership in movements like Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience mobilized large numbers.
- Emphasis on Truth and Non-Violence: His principles of truth and non-violence appealed to a broad spectrum of society.
- Promotion of Swadeshi and Boycott: His advocacy for Swadeshi (indigenous goods) and the boycott of foreign goods fostered economic self-reliance.
- Importance of Charkha and Khadi: He promoted Charkha (spinning wheel) and Khadi (homespun cloth) as symbols of self-sufficiency and resistance.
- Social Reforms: He championed the upliftment of women, the poor, and the downtrodden, and worked towards Hindu-Muslim unity and the abolition of untouchability.
- Inclusivity: He strived to balance the interests of all sections of society.
Sources for Reconstructing Gandhi’s Career and the National Movement
- Autobiographies and biographies of prominent figures.
- Contemporary newspapers and periodicals.
- Official records and police reports.
- Public speeches and private letters.
Gandhi’s “Miraculous Powers”: Public Perception
Gandhi’s ascetic lifestyle, his use of the dhoti and charkha, and his communication in Hindi contributed to his immense popularity. Wherever he went, rumors spread about his “miraculous powers.” Some believed he was sent by the King to address farmers’ grievances, that he had the power to overrule local officials, and that he was superior to the British. His fight against untouchability further enhanced his image as a powerful and benevolent figure.
The Oppressive Nature of the Salt Tax
Gandhi considered the salt tax more oppressive than other taxes because it was a “wickedly designed” tax that disproportionately affected the poor. The tax was often fourteen times the value of the salt itself. The government destroyed any unsold salt, preventing people from accessing it even if it occurred naturally. Salt officers were deployed to destroy natural salt deposits, effectively destroying national property at the expense of the people.