Industrial Revolution: Causes, Innovations, and Global Expansion
The Demographic and Agricultural Revolutions
The Demographic Revolution initiated a growth process of 5 to 10 million people, primarily due to the increase in production and advancements in hygiene and medicine. This resulted in a decrease in mortality rates while fertility rates remained stable.
The Agricultural Revolution saw an increased demand for food, leading to higher prices. Two major changes occurred: the privatization of land and the application of new cultivation methods and techniques. Laws were passed ending the old manorial system, establishing private property. Key innovations included the suppression of fallow land by using forage plants, progressive mechanization, and new crops, which allowed for a richer and more varied diet for the population.
Machines, Steam, and Factories
Technological innovation was another crucial factor. Machines replaced manual labor and crafts, transforming old systems. Each technical advancement increased productivity and reduced costs. Early machines were powered by human or hydropower. The steam engine, invented by James Watt and fueled by charcoal, revolutionized production. The factory system concentrated workers, with each worker performing a small part of the production chain.
The Textile Industry
In Britain, the cotton industry was the first to be mechanized. A trade existed for calico, a printed cotton fabric from India, but the British government banned its importation. Key inventions included the flying shuttle, spinning machines, and looms.
Coal and Iron
The steel sector was another pioneer. Furnaces initially used charcoal, then charcoal coke. The Bessemer process converted iron into steel.
Railroad and Steamboat
In the 18th century, Great Britain improved its means of communication. Railroads were used in mines, and the locomotive, developed by Stephenson, marked a significant advancement.
The construction of the railway network in Europe greatly stimulated the development of the steel industry. Railways shortened journey times, increased security, and reduced transport costs.
Increase in Trade
The Industrial Revolution led to a market economy focused on sales and improvements in internal and external trade.
Liberalism and Capitalism
Personal interest and the pursuit of maximum profit drove the economy. The market balanced supply and demand through price mechanisms. The state refrained from intervening in the economy, allowing individual interests to develop. Capitalism is a system where the means of production are privately owned, and workers are employed in exchange for wages. Capitalism experiences recurring economic crises because supply tends to increase faster than demand, leading to bankruptcies and unemployment.
The Expansion of Industrial Capitalism
In the early 19th century, industrial capitalism spread to France and Belgium, with a greater emphasis on steel and textiles. Between 1850 and 1870, Russia, Germany, the USA, and Japan industrialized, adopting foreign technologies and capital. Southern Europe saw industrialized regions alongside rural areas.
New Sources of Energy and New Industries
Electricity and oil replaced coal as primary energy sources. The invention of the dynamo in 1869 allowed for the production of hydroelectric power, which had multiple applications in industry, transportation, communications, and leisure. Oil began to be mined in the U.S., and the combustion engine enabled its use. Aviation began with the Wright brothers’ first airplane flight. Metallurgy advanced with stainless steel and aluminum, boosting the automobile industry. The chemical industry developed new fertilizers, pesticides, chemicals, dyes, and pharmaceuticals.