Industrial Revolution: Demographic and Social Transformations
Demographic and Social Transformations During the Industrial Revolution
The economic shifts during the Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the social structure. Key phenomena included:
European Population Growth
The European population increased due to sustained high birth rates and a significant reduction in mortality. This growth was more pronounced in urban areas.
Urbanization
Cities expanded rapidly, driven by immigration from rural areas and abroad. This rapid urbanization often occurred without proper planning.
The Rise of Capitalist Society
A capitalist society emerged, characterized by the principle of equality before the law. However, this legal equality did not always translate into social equality. Society became structured around two primary classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Second Phase of Industrialization
Following the initial phase of industrialization in England and its spread across Europe, the USA, and Japan, a new phase began, lasting until 1914. Great Britain’s dominance diminished as other powers rose. This phase was characterized by:
- New energy sources
- Development of new production sectors
- Changes in work organization
- New forms of business capital
- Expansion of the global market
New Energy Sources
While steam power was central to the First Industrial Revolution, the Second saw the development of new energy sources:
- Petroleum: Fueled the combustion engine and automotive industry, reaching maturity with Henry Ford in the early 20th century.
- Electricity: Essential for lighting (Edison’s light bulb, 1879), electromagnetic signal transmission (telegraph), acoustic transmission (Marconi’s radio), and various engines, including those used in trams and production sectors.
New Production Sectors
In contrast to the textile and steel industries of the First Industrial Revolution, new leading sectors emerged between 1870 and 1914:
- Chemical Industry: Produced dyes, explosives (e.g., dynamite, Nobel), fertilizers, medicines, artificial fibers (e.g., nylon), rubber, etc.
- New Metallurgy: Obtained nickel, aluminum, etc. Iron underwent refining through the Bessemer converter or Siemens-Martin process, stimulating the armaments industry.
- Food Preservation Industries: Canned goods (1875), industrial refrigeration (1878), etc.
New Work Organization Methods
The complexity of new business and production processes in the Second Industrial Revolution led to new systems of work organization:
- Taylorism: Focused on the scientific organization of the production process through specialization and standardization to reduce labor costs.
- Fordism: Successfully applied in Henry Ford’s automobile factories, emphasizing specialization, optimization, and mass production to make goods more affordable.
New Forms of Capital
While early industrialization was largely financed by family capital, new needs prompted the search for new funding sources. Entrepreneurs sought credit to manage rising payouts for partners.
- Corporations (Sociedades Anónimas): Companies formed with owners’ equity (shares). The buying and selling of shares occurred in the stock market.
- Business Concentration: Large corporations, trusts, and holding companies emerged.
Globalization
The globalization of the economy resulted from the need for raw materials and new markets to sell surplus industrial production. Major powers embarked on the conquest and control of large areas of Africa and Asia, integrating different economies. This phenomenon, known as imperialism, contributed to the outbreak of the First World War.