Industrial Revolution in Britain: Causes and Impacts
The Industrial Revolution in Britain (1780-1860)
The Industrial Revolution, a pivotal period of transformation from an agrarian to an industrialized economy, occurred in Britain between 1780 and 1860. This shift propelled Great Britain to become a global leader in industry and finance.
Causes of the Industrial Revolution in England
By the late 18th century, England (home to 59 million people since then) had a population of 9 million. A decline in mortality, coupled with increased farm production and livestock, led to improved nutrition. Other factors contributing to population growth included the adoption of cotton clothing, the use of soap, the relocation of cemeteries, and the invention of the smallpox vaccine.
The Norfolk System, which eliminated fallow land by combining it with forage crops for human consumption, also played a significant role.
Transformation of Industry
Changes in production systems were characterized by the introduction of machines and the replacement of animate energy sources with inanimate ones. This led to the concentration of workers in factories. The factory system, with its emphasis on mass production, gradually replaced handicraft production.
Mechanization began with innovations like the flying shuttle and new mechanical spinning and weaving machines. Initially, these machines were powered by hydropower, utilizing water wheels to harness the energy of rivers. The invention of the steam engine, however, allowed for greater independence from traditional energy sources.
The Importance of Coal and Iron
Coal became the primary fuel of the 19th century, powering steam engines and driving industrial growth. Coal production increased significantly. The use of iron beams in mines allowed for safer and deeper well penetration. The replacement of charcoal with coke for smelting, along with advancements in furnace technology, further fueled the expansion of the coal mining industry.
New Transportation Systems
Roads were improved, and canals were constructed to facilitate the movement of goods. The invention of the railroad, however, sparked a true revolution in transportation, offering unprecedented speed, load capacity, and safety. Stephenson’s locomotive, a steam engine capable of traveling on rails, was a key innovation. Robert Fulton applied the steam engine to navigation, leading to the gradual replacement of sailing ships with steam-powered vessels. These advancements triggered a stock market boom for construction companies.
The Rise of Capitalism
The Industrial Revolution fostered a free enterprise system, characterized by individual pursuit of profit. Free trade, advocated by Britain, minimized government intervention in international trade, allowing for the unrestricted exchange of goods between nations. In contrast, protectionism advocated for tariffs on foreign products to make importation unprofitable.
Class Society and Economic Liberalism
In rural areas, many small landowners transitioned into laborers. The rise of manufacturing production led to the decline of many artisan workshops. A new class, the bourgeoisie, emerged, comprising businessmen, bankers, and landowners. Employees constituted the majority of the workforce, operating machinery and producing goods.
Economic liberalism, an economic theory advocating minimal state interference in the economy, gained prominence. The proletariat, the lower social strata in a capitalist society, sold their labor to the bourgeoisie.