Industrial Revolution: Origins, Development, and Global Impact

Posted on Nov 22, 2024 in Geography

Joint economic and social changes reflecting the shift from agrarian to industrial societies, and from craft to finance. It brought technical changes, increased wealth production, and population growth. The social, political, and colonial effects were profound. The term ‘Industrial Revolution,’ coined in 1880, initially referred to a sudden change in pre-industrial economic structures. Today, we call this process industrialization.

Agricultural societies supplemented farming and livestock with cottage industries, a dispersed rural manufacturing system. Throughout the 18th century, textile manufacturing grew into establishments with a few employees using evolving tools. The replacement of handicraft by mechanization began in Britain, where circumstances favored the birth of the Industrial Revolution.

• Prevalence of farming and crafts
• Low incomes and wages
• Low productivity
• Socioeconomic inequalities
• Limited capital from low savings
• Land as the primary form of wealth

Proto-industrialization marked the beginning of industrialization from the cottage industry. It had three stages:

• Domestic System: Farmers owned tools and raw materials, selling surplus goods to traders occasionally.
• Putting-Out System: Merchants controlled production, supplying raw materials and tools, and setting piece-rate wages.
• Factory System: Merchant profits and retailer savings enabled the establishment of centralized production facilities with machinery and concentrated workers.

Developed in two phases: 1st (1730-1870) and 2nd (1870-1945). It originated in England due to several circumstances:

• Demographic: Population growth from declining mortality, increased birth rates, improved nutrition from agricultural production, and advances in medicine and hygiene. This factor increased demand for industrial goods, leading to mass production.
• Agricultural Revolution: Elimination of fallow land, introduction of legumes (peas, alfalfa), species selection, and improved plows enhanced productivity. This fed the industrial and urban workforce, increased demand for industrial goods, and shifted labor and capital to industry.
• International Trade: Trade with England’s colonies, such as the Thirteen Colonies of the U.S., with cotton being a notable commodity.
• Transportation: Easier and cheaper transportation, improved waterways, and the creation of a national market. Transportation facilitated the distribution of industrial products.

Factories, industrial facilities using automated machinery, emerged in the 18th century, demanding capital, workers, and continuous technical innovation. Industrial mechanization resulted in:

• Increased production and consumption due to falling prices
• New production systems
• New social and labor relations

The textile and steel industries were central to the English revolution. Key developments in mechanized cotton textiles included:

• 1733: Flying shuttle
• 1760: Spinning Jenny
• 1768: Water frame
• 1780: Mule-Jenny
• 1785: Power loom

The steel industry responded to the need for iron in machines:

• Smelters used coal for heat and steam power.
• The iron-coal association concentrated industry near iron ore and coal deposits.
• Steel became a major industrial driver from the 1830s.

Britain was the first industrial country due to abundant natural resources, population growth, agricultural revolution, colonial trade capital, technical innovations, and increased demand. The revolution’s spread was slow, following the English model after the Napoleonic era. Belgium and France industrialized due to population growth and textile traditions. Germany’s industrialization was state-promoted. Poland, Russia, Austria, Spain, and Italy started later than Germany with varying results. The USA experienced strong entrepreneurial spirit, significant immigration, and fewer obstacles than European countries. They imitated and improved upon English technology, leveraging vast natural resources. Industrialization began in the textile industry in New England around 1816, surpassing other nations by 1850. Coal, steel, steam power, and transport stimulated growth. Railway construction globally demanded vast amounts of iron and steel, boosting the steel industry.

The transportation revolution was crucial for distributing goods and driving the steel industry. Two new modes of transport emerged: railways and steamships.

• Rail: Rail transport using animal power initially, then steam. Stephenson invented the steam locomotive, initiating the first railway era (1835-1900). The first line connected Manchester and Liverpool. England soon developed a dense rail network. Key aspects of railways were:
  • Speed (40 km/h)
  • Industrial impact (demand for iron)
  • Financial impact (heavy investment)
• Main lines were constructed in countries that industrialized later. Steamships allowed for larger tonnage, reduced costs, and the opening of oceanic canals. New communication media like the telephone and telegraph also appeared.

Different perspectives on the relationship between agricultural and industrial revolutions include:

• Walt W. Rostow: Argued that without the agricultural revolution, there would have been no industrial revolution.
• M. Croucant: Believed that while an agricultural revolution wasn’t essential, population growth was necessary for an industrial revolution.
• Poul Bairoch: Argued that increased agricultural productivity enabled a demographic revolution and the transfer of labor to the industrial sector.