Industrial Revolution: Societal and Economic Transformations
Industrial Revolution: Technological, Economic, and Social Changes
The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from a traditional, agricultural society to a modern one. Factors that drove the first Industrial Revolution included population growth, expansion of agriculture, and the emergence of a new economic outlook. The appearance of machines had two consequences: industrial activities were concentrated in certain locations, and the organization of work was modified, leading to the division of labor. Exhausting working hours, between 12 and 16 hours a day, were common. Mechanization and the division of labor did increase productivity, reducing manufacturing costs and the prices of industrial products.
Textiles and Steel Industries
The cotton textile industry quickly joined the technical innovations. The steel industry reached great development. The substitution of coal for charcoal led to the construction of highly modern blast furnaces. The demand for iron was very high.
The Splendor of Navigation
- In 1807, Fulton launched boats powered by steam engines.
- Between 1830 and 1880, iron ships were incorporated, and propellers began to be used.
- In 1870, the first refrigerated ship reached American shores.
The Era of Railways
In Britain, since the 18th century, roads had improved, but land transportation was slow and insecure. This changed with the invention of the railway.
- In 1814, Stephenson built the first steam locomotive, which was used to transport cargo between coal mines.
- In 1830, the first railway for transporting passengers was inaugurated.
The railway stimulated economic growth wherever it went. Railroads multiplied throughout the world, and transcontinental lines were designed.
Consequences of the Transportation Revolution
- Strong growth in trade occurred because the time and costs of transport were reduced.
- The world economy became specialized. Industrialized countries imported raw materials and produced manufactured goods, which were then exported.
- The new transport diversified the population’s diet, as perishable foods could be transported, and it facilitated emigration.
New Industries and New Industrial Powers
From 1870, new energy sources were tested, replacing coal: electricity and petroleum appeared. New industries emerged: the iron and steel industry, the electric industry, and the chemical industry.
- In the steel sector, great progress was triggered by the invention of the Bessemer furnace, capable of producing steel.
- The production and distribution of electricity resulted in the electrical industry and made possible the development of new means of transport (rail, tram, and electric) and communication (telephone and radio). Electric lighting revolutionized everyday life.
- The chemical industry used oil and rubber to manufacture new products and synthetic pharmaceutical items. Oil was used as fuel in two new means of transportation: the automobile (1885) and the airplane.
Britain was losing its industrial supremacy.
New Production Systems
- Taylorism: Split production operations into small jobs, with the duration timed; each worker specialized in one task.
- Fordism: Mass production through an assembly line avoided downtime and increased the number of products.
There was a concentration process in business forms:
- Cartel: An association of companies engaged in the same sector, reaching agreements to control production and distribution, set prices, and share profits.
- Trust: A voluntary grouping of different companies to cover all stages of production of an article to dominate the market by eliminating competition.
- Holding Company: A corporation of companies controlled by a single company, which owns the majority of shares.
Legal Equality, Social Inequality
The new liberal society was based on legal equality: all men would be judged by the same laws and courts, and public offices could be accessed according to merits, not family origin. However, society remained uneven. Women remained subordinate to men. There was a big economic gap between those who had property and those who did not. The population was divided into social classes according to wealth.
The Decline of the Aristocracy
The European aristocracy lost much of its social preeminence. It started paying taxes, and when it had to sell land to maintain its standard of living, it had no entrepreneurial spirit. Until the 20th century, aristocrats continued to occupy the most prestigious positions in politics, justice, the army, and diplomacy, and their way of life was the social model.
The Rise of the Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie was an emerging social class that included many different groups: entrepreneurs, rentiers, senior officials, military personnel, and some liberal professionals. The burghers defended initiative and individual benefit.
The Working Class
Industrial workers worked in factories in exchange for a wage. They were paid low wages, especially women and children, and worked long hours (12-16 hours).
Farmers
Despite industrialization, most of Europe’s population worked in the field. Differences:
- In the northwest of Europe, there were small landowners who could belong to the middle classes.
- In southern Europe, the number of landless laborers was very high. They were paid low wages and had a miserable life.
- In central and eastern Europe, they suffered the worst situation.
The Beginnings of the Labor Movement
The labor movement was a collective set of initiatives undertaken by industrial workers to improve their working conditions. They protested against their poor living conditions and job insecurity by destroying machines, which they considered guilty because of luddism. The right of association was first recognized in Britain (1824). From that time, workers’ associations, or trade unions, began to emerge. Workers went on strike, demanding improved working conditions: reduction of working hours, abolition of child labor, wage increases, improvement of sanitary conditions in factories, and the establishment of unemployment, sickness, and old-age insurance. They also demanded universal suffrage.
Ideologies: Anarchism and Marxism
Marxism is the most influential socialist theory. It owes its name to Karl Marx. Marxist theory stated that in industrial societies, there is a class struggle between the bourgeoisie, the owners of factories and mass production, and the workers, or the proletariat. Marx proposed that the workers make a revolution to destroy capitalism and empower workers. After a period of dictatorship, a communist society would be established. This caused the foundation of socialist parties.
Anarchists opposed the state and aspired to replace it with voluntary associations among people. In the mid-19th century, the French Proudhon and the Russians Bakunin and Kropotkin were emphasized.
The International Workers
In 1864, the first International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) was created. Governments made labor laws: child labor was banned, accident insurance was introduced, and the workday was reduced to 8 hours.
Realism
- The ability to comment.
- The desire for objectivity.
- Dedication in terms of its time.
A Literate Society
Government primary schools were created. Major research centers (schools, museums) thrived. The press became the means by which expression was possible, thanks to the freedoms of speech and the printing press.
Population
- Before: Old demographic regime, growing very slowly. Birth and mortality rates were very high.
- Later: Accelerated population growth because of large migrations.
- Before: People lived in villages (rural).
- After: People moved to cities (urban).
Agriculture
- Before: Based on the primary sector, with improved agricultural techniques, livestock, and currency reform of agricultural structures (traditional subsistence).
- After: Based on industry, with agriculture gradually disappearing (mechanized).
Industry
- Before: A minority engaged in it. Some decided to invest their savings in other businesses, such as industry or the stock market (manual, in the manufacturing sector).
- After: It became the base of the economy (with machines, new techniques).
Class Society
- After: The proletariat class appeared, along with the bourgeoisie.