Industrial Revolution to Imperialism: 19th-20th Century Transformations

Posted on Dec 11, 2024 in Geography

The Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in the latter half of the 19th century. It marked a shift towards large-scale capitalism, characterized by the application of scientific knowledge to industrial processes. This led to a massive acceleration of production and significant societal changes.

Key Features of the Second Industrial Revolution

  • Dramatic Increase in Production: Existing sectors from the First Industrial Revolution, such as textiles and coal, saw significant growth. New industries also emerged.
  • Metal Industry Advancements: Iron was replaced by stronger and more versatile steel. New metals like copper, aluminum, and nickel were also utilized.
  • Chemical Industry Revolution: Laboratories used new technologies and scientific knowledge to improve food production and create chemical fertilizers. Pasteur’s invention of pasteurization revolutionized food preservation.
  • New Energy Sources:
    • Electricity: Enabled a wide range of innovations, including Edison’s power station in Manhattan and the rise of the Hollywood film industry.
    • Petroleum: Fueled the growth of the automotive industry and the use of petroleum derivatives. Rockefeller established the world’s largest oil company.
  • Transportation Revolution: The railway sector transformed transportation and trade, boosting the mechanical and metallurgical industries. Aviation emerged after World War I. Steamships dominated maritime transport due to their increased tonnage, speed, and safety. The Suez and Panama Canals were constructed, reducing production costs and travel distances.
  • Business Partnerships and Mergers: Companies formed partnerships and mergers to increase capital and market control.
  • Global Market Emergence: A global market developed, with countries specializing in raw materials, agricultural products, or industrial goods.
  • Gold Standard: Gold became the standard instrument for international trade payments.
  • New Production Methods: The assembly line and mass production techniques were introduced.
  • Economic Cycles: Periods of economic boom and bust became more pronounced.
  • Shifting Industrial Power: Great Britain lost its position as the leading industrial power to Germany and the United States.

Population Growth and Migration

The 19th century witnessed a population explosion alongside economic development. The European population doubled, and the United States experienced significant growth due to immigration. Internal migration led to rural depopulation and urban concentration. Over 60 million Europeans emigrated overseas, primarily to the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.

Transformations in Work and Business Organization

Large-scale production required significant capital investment. This led to the rise of limited partnerships, where each partner contributed capital. Three main types of business organizations emerged:

  • Cartel: A group of companies producing the same product, colluding to control the market while maintaining independence.
  • Trust: A merger of companies producing different but complementary products, under the direction of a single company.
  • Holding: A company that controls several other companies by acquiring a majority of their shares.

The Economic Rise of the United States

Several factors contributed to the rapid economic growth of the United States:

  • Need for Mechanization: Vast areas of land required machines for cultivation with limited labor.
  • Individualism: The entrepreneurial spirit and the introduction of new production systems drove innovation.
  • Abundant Natural Resources: Coal, iron, and oil were plentiful.
  • Population Growth: Young European immigrants and a high birth rate fueled population growth.
  • Westward Expansion: Peaceful land acquisition from Native Americans facilitated expansion.
  • Regional Specialization: The East focused on industrial production, while the West specialized in agriculture and livestock.

Early Social Laws and the Division of Socialism

In the 1870s, socialist parties emerged in most European countries. This led to the restoration of the International Workingmen’s Association (AIT). European governments began adopting social laws. The revisionist controversy, led by Eduard Bernstein, who criticized some of Marx’s teachings, split the socialist movement. More radical Marxists formed a path that would eventually lead to communism. Lenin’s success in Russia led to the foundation of the Third International.

Imperialism (1870-1914)

During this period, European powers engaged in the conquest of territories in Africa and Asia, establishing vast colonial empires. Colonies served as markets for industrial products and sources of raw materials.

Causes of Imperialism

  • Demographic and Economic: The need for new markets, investment opportunities, and raw materials, along with population growth and unemployment, were key drivers.
  • Strategic Concerns: Great Britain sought to secure strategic locations along trade routes.
  • Political and Ideological: The desire to build empires and establish global power, often justified by a belief in the superiority of the white race, played a significant role.

Organization of Conquered Territories

Colonial formation involved three phases:

  1. Conquest: Military force was used to occupy territories.
  2. Organization: An administration was established, often lacking self-government, with the metropolis controlling through its officials. Colonies were used for surplus population and raw material extraction. Some areas with significant white populations were granted self-government. Protectorates were established in territories with limited European settlement, where the local government was respected but foreign policy was controlled by the metropolis.
  3. Exploitation: Free movement of goods between the colony and the metropolis was established, with tariffs imposed on goods from other nations. Colonies became suppliers of raw materials.

The Scramble for Africa

  • Africa Before 1880: European powers held coastal enclaves, but the interior remained largely unexplored.
  • Africa After the Berlin Conference (1884-1885): This conference, attended by representatives from 12 European nations, formalized the partition of Africa. It created a Belgian-owned state under Leopold II and accelerated the process of colonization.

Colonial Empires and Conflicts

Major Colonial Powers

  • United Kingdom: Aimed to occupy a strip connecting Egypt to South Africa. Clashed with France in Sudan and Portugal in Rhodesia. Supported the Netherlands in South Africa.
  • France: Sought to dominate a strip from west to east across the Sahara. Clashed with Germany in its southward advance and with England in Sudan.

Colonial Conflicts in Africa

  1. French expeditions to Sudan nearly caused an international incident with Britain but were resolved diplomatically.
  2. In South Africa, British expansion led to war with the two Dutch colonies after the discovery of gold and diamonds. England eventually annexed these colonies.
  3. Morocco’s strategic and commercial value led to conflict, with German involvement creating serious international crises.

The Partition of Asia

The main objective in Asia was to establish trading posts. New imperialist powers, such as Russia, Japan, and the United States, sought to control areas of influence for trade and finance. Some territories remained unconquered.

China and International Rivalries

China remained anchored in its traditional structures. The Chinese government resisted opening its territory to foreign trade. The Opium Wars forced the opening of Chinese ports to foreign products. The Manchu dynasty lost prestige after defeats to France and Japan, leading to concessions. The Boxer Rebellion was repressed by Western powers, ultimately leading to the overthrow of the emperor and the establishment of a republic.

United States Imperialism

Economic expansion fostered a sense of superiority in the United States, leading to different doctrines:

  • Monroe Doctrine: Defended the right of Latin American countries to independence and opposed European dominance in the region.
  • Manifest Destiny: Promoted aggressive nationalism and expansionism.
  • Roosevelt Corollary: Justified U.S. intervention in Cuba, Venezuela, and Panama, establishing the foundations of American expansion. The Spanish-American War resulted in Cuban independence but with significant U.S. influence.

Japanese Imperialism

Before 1868, Japan was a feudal empire. Other powers forced trade agreements, leading to the Meiji Restoration and modernization. Imperialist expansion was driven by:

  • Economic Reasons: Japan became an exporter of capital, and zaibatsu (industrial conglomerates) sought new markets and territories.
  • Social and Political Reasons: Japan adopted an aggressive foreign policy.

Two conflicts stemming from Korea established Japan as an imperialist power:

  • Sino-Japanese War: Japan imposed a trade agreement on Korea, leading to its separation from China. China ceded Korea’s independence in the peace treaty.
  • Russo-Japanese War: Russian possessions in Manchuria and Korea led to conflict. With U.S. intervention, a treaty was signed, establishing Korea as a Japanese protectorate.