Industrial Revolutions: Transformations and Impacts
1. Factors of the First Industrial Revolution
Prior to the industrial revolution, three key changes occurred: population growth, agricultural expansion, and a shift in economic thinking. From the mid-18th century, birth rates remained high while mortality decreased, leading to rapid population growth. Agricultural techniques improved, farming was reformed, and land became private property, allowing farmers to accumulate capital. This led to a rural exodus and investment in new businesses, driven by economic liberalism.
2. The First Industrial Revolution (1780-1860)
Industrialization began in Britain and spread across Europe, focusing on textiles and steel. Workshops were replaced by factories using steam-powered machines. This led to concentrated industrial activities, fixed work schedules, and increased productivity through division of labor. Britain’s advantages included abundant manpower, a large market, and rich iron and coal deposits.
3. Revolution in Transport
Innovations in transport began with steam-powered boats, exemplified by Fulton’s commercial line. The Suez Canal facilitated shipping. Land transport improved with the advent of railroads, driven by steam and iron, leading to faster, safer, and higher-capacity transport, boosting trade and changing daily life.
4. The Second Industrial Revolution
From 1870, new industries emerged, driven by electricity and chemicals. Oil powered new transport like airplanes and automobiles. Modern industries developed in the U.S. and Germany. Corporations replaced family businesses, with capital divided into shares traded on stock exchanges. Banks played a crucial role in providing loans. New work systems like Taylorism and Fordism emerged, focusing on efficiency and mass production. Trusts and holding companies concentrated economic power.
5. Effects of Industrialization on Population and Cities
The industrial revolution caused significant social changes, including population growth due to decreased mortality and increased fertility. Mechanization of farming led to urbanization, with rapid, unplanned growth around factories. Migration was facilitated by new transport, with many emigrating to America, New Zealand, and Australia.
6. Emergence of a Class Society
Industrial society was divided into classes based on economic position. The bourgeoisie became dominant, while the aristocracy lost prominence. Society was stratified into upper, middle, and lower classes based on wealth.
7. Position of Lower and Middle Classes
The middle class had a higher economic and educational status than the lower class. They invested in education and held moderate political views. Workers labored in factories for wages. Most of Europe’s population remained rural.
8. The Labor Movement
Workers organized to improve their conditions, leading to the legalization of unions in 1824. Strikes became a tool for demanding better conditions and suffrage. The labor movement gave rise to Marxism and anarchism. Marxism, developed by Karl Marx, posited a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat, advocating for a classless communist society. Anarchists opposed the state, favoring voluntary associations. Key figures included Proudhon and Bakunin. The First International Workers’ Association was formed in 1864. May Day and the Internationale became symbols of the labor movement. Governments began enacting labor laws to address employer abuses.