Infinity, God, and the Social Contract: Key Philosophical Concepts
Infinity, God, and the Foundations of Thought
The Idea of Infinity and the Existence of God: The analysis of thinking has allowed us to discover some ideas that build thought itself, including the idea of infinity and the idea of a perfect being, which Christianity identifies as God. As Anselm of Canterbury demonstrated, the term ‘God’ expresses the essence of a being that may not exist. Therefore, from the idea of God found in my mind, I conclude that God exists. Now, we can take a third step to justify the existence of the world.
God guarantees that what is true is true. If God exists, it is incompatible with the existence of an evil genius. To say that God exists guarantees the validity of understanding when used correctly, ensuring that what I know is true. I move, then, not only as a soul but also as a body. Finally, if God has placed ideas of things in us and cannot deceive us, then these things exist. Thus, Descartes ends by admitting the existence of things in the world.
Substances, Attributes, and Modes
Descartes defines substance as a thing that exists and needs nothing else to exist. By this definition, only God would be a proper substance. We also call those substances ‘things’ that need only God to exist. This substance is also considered corporeal substance and thinking substance.
- Thinking Substance: Descartes uses the expressions soul, conscience, and ‘I think’.
- Corporeal Substance: Extended and the world.
The attributes are what constitute the essence or nature of a substance. The attribute of bodies is the extension of consciousness thought.
The modes are the different forms of the attributes that can vary. Thus, the extension can be given as a figure or movement, and thought can be intellect and will.
Rousseau and the State of Nature
Man’s Natural Character:
- Natural state.
- Men have not been corrupted, are mostly healthy and strong.
- Men are basically the same.
- In a state of nature, men move under two core passions or impulses: the desire for self-preservation and pity or compassion for their similarities.
Natural Goodness: Rousseau argues that man is naturally good, but becomes evil and full of vices with the creation of human societies, becoming, as Hobbes sings, ‘a wolf to man’.
Private Property: The state of nature gave way to a kind of war of all against all. It was then, to avoid that state of war, that men and governments instituted laws, giving rise to political society or the state. But states and institutions only served to consolidate the situation of inequality and injustice.
The Social Contract and the General Will
Reform of the Political Community: Social Contract:
Given this situation, what is Rousseau’s proposal? To return to its natural state? No, because besides being impossible, it is not desirable. Rousseau proposes to reform existing companies in order to create a mode of political organization that maintains the advantages of living in society but is consistent with human nature. This problem is solved by the social contract. The social contract consists of an agreement by which each contracting party is entirely subject to the general will.
The General Will
Can be defined as the will that arises from the union of all individuals by establishing laws that must be applied equally to all. Thus, special interests disappear, and the common good is introduced. What Rousseau means by general will has similar characteristics to what in current political theory is called popular will.
The State and the Sovereign
Thus, through the social contract, individuals agree to abide by the general will, thus introducing a republic. The sovereign is thus the people. Moreover, since the general will is, sovereignty is indivisible. For this reason, Rousseau rejects the separation of powers, against Locke and Montesquieu. The legislature is the only sovereign power. The executive, which resides in the government administration, should be limited to that established by the legislature, that is, to enforce the law.