International Alliances and Conflicts in the Early 20th Century
The Formation of International Alliances
In the early 20th century, most European countries were part of a complex system of alliances forged since the late 1870s and Bismarck’s era. These alliances had objectives such as German dominance in European politics, the creation of a power bloc centered around Germany, containment of Germany’s enemies, and the isolation of France to prevent revenge for Alsace-Lorraine after the 1870 defeat. Bismarck’s strategies included the Three Emperors’ League (1873), an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was signed in 1873 and later ratified with Russia in 1882. Finally, the Triple Alliance was formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Russia, threatened by isolation, allied with France, who also sought an agreement to counter the Triple Alliance, resulting in the Franco-Russian Alliance (1892). Great Britain and France overcame their differences and signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904. Three years later, Britain established agreements with Russia. These actions thwarted Bismarck’s plan to isolate France. With the arrival of William II, a new policy called Weltpolitik, contrary to Bismarck’s, was implemented. Thus, by 1907, the Triple Entente emerged to oppose the Triple Alliance, setting the stage for the Great War.
Colonial Confrontations
The Berlin Conference of 1885 attempted to establish arbitration agreements between empires, but conflicts re-emerged in the early 20th century. Hostilities between rival imperialist powers arose in North Africa, one of the last regions to be divided. Germany, a latecomer to colonialism, was determined to gain territory. The First Moroccan Crisis (1905) saw Germany offer aid to Morocco to resist French pressure for a protectorate. The Algeciras Conference (1906) resolved the conflict, frustrating German aspirations. Germany did not give up and initiated the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911. Under the pretext of protecting German residents during an insurrection, Germany sent warships to Agadir, securing the expansion of its colony in Cameroon in exchange for abandoning Morocco.
The Balkan Crises
The Balkan Crises involved the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires vying for influence within the declining Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary opposed the unification of Slavic countries, fearing territorial loss, while Russia aimed to increase its international role as protector of the Slavs, particularly Serbia. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had administered since 1878, provoking Russia’s anger and leading to the Balkan Wars. The First Balkan War (1912) saw the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) attack Ottoman territories. The Second Balkan War (1913) pitted Serbia against Bulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest confirmed Bulgaria as the biggest loser, ceding territories to various countries, especially Serbia.
The Outbreak of War
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb student. Austria-Hungary, with German backing, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, accusing it of orchestrating the attack. Austria-Hungary hoped other powers would remain neutral, but within a week, the alliance system was activated. Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary, Germany declared war on Russia and France, and Germany’s invasion of Belgium prompted Britain to declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Despite popular opposition to war, the rapid escalation and the conviction that the enemy was responsible spurred the formation of “sacred unions” across political divides.
War of Movement and Trench Warfare
In 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary had strong armies, but fighting a two-front war required a swift victory. A prolonged conflict risked isolation by a naval blockade and attacks on German colonies. The German plan involved a quick strike against France through Belgium and Luxembourg, then concentrating forces on the Russian front. Initially, the French attacked Alsace but retreated as the Germans advanced through Belgium. From September 6-13, the French, led by Marshal Joffre, halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne, stabilizing their defensive positions with the help of their allies. On the Eastern Front, the German advance was greater, but Russian forces launched a counterattack into Austro-Hungarian territory. On the Western Front, the conflict peaked in 1916 with the Battle of Verdun, where the French withstood attacks for over four months. The Allies attempted an offensive at the Somme, but with limited success. On the Eastern Front, a Russian counterattack surprised the Germans, but a new German offensive in the summer of 1915 recovered previously occupied territories: Galicia, Russian Poland, and Lithuania.
Wilson’s 14 Points
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson advocated for a peace based on law, respect for nationalities, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and the promotion of democracy. His vision was summarized in his Fourteen Points, which included open peace treaties, freedom of navigation, removal of economic barriers, reduction of armaments, impartial settlement of colonial claims, restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France, autonomous development for the peoples of Austria-Hungary, international guarantees for the independence of Balkan states, and the creation of a League of Nations to ensure mutual security between states.