Interwar Period & World War II: 1918-1945

1. The Interwar Period: 1918-1939

The years between the end of World War I (1918) and the start of World War II (1939) are known as the interwar period.

The 1920s were generally optimistic, marked by innovation and growth, with the US leading global finance. However, the 1929 New York Stock Exchange crash triggered a worldwide financial crisis, leading to unemployment and poverty. This crisis revealed the limitations of the liberal economic system.

The US pursued radical reforms under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In Europe, some nations turned to totalitarianism, with anti-democratic parties gaining mass support.

ITALY

Fascism rose in Italy. Benito Mussolini formed paramilitary groups, black shirts, and founded the National Fascist Party. In 1922, he marched on Rome, leading to his appointment as Prime Minister. Mussolini established a totalitarian regime, suspending the constitution. Key features included:

• Absolute power of the Fascist Party and Mussolini (Il Duce).
• Ban on political parties, with state-sponsored terror against opposition.
• Expansionist foreign policy, including the invasion of Abyssinia in 1935.
• Public works projects to reduce unemployment, alongside racist laws against Jews.

GERMANY

Adolf Hitler established a totalitarian regime in Germany. In 1921, he founded the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party), promoting ultranationalism. Exploiting economic hardship, the Nazis gained support, becoming the second-largest party in 1930 and achieving a parliamentary majority in 1932. Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933.

Hitler banned other parties, assumed dictatorial powers as Führer, and declared the Third Reich. Key features included:

• Control by the Gestapo, using torture and murder against opponents.
• Aryan supremacy and persecution of Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and the disabled.
• Rearmament and military expansion.
• Economic improvement.

Hitler aimed to reclaim lost territories and conquer new lands. He allied with Mussolini. The Spanish Civil War (1936) served as a testing ground for German and Italian forces.

RUSSIA

From 1928, Stalin pursued rapid state-led industrialization, focusing on heavy industry and military power, neglecting consumer goods.

SPAIN

Alfonso XIII’s reign faced growing discontent, exacerbated by the Moroccan War. Spain’s neutrality in WWI benefited businesses but not the working class. Post-war economic decline led to Miguel Primo de Rivera’s 1923 coup, supported by Alfonso XIII. Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship initially improved some aspects of life but failed to address underlying issues. He resigned in 1929.

General Berenguer aimed to restore constitutional order, leading to municipal elections in April 1931, which republicans won. Alfonso XIII went into exile, and the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931.

2. The Second Spanish Republic and Civil War (1931-1939)

SECOND SPANISH REPUBLIC

The Second Republic aimed for modernization and reform. Historians divide it into three stages:

The Reform Biennium (1931-1933): The 1931 Constitution introduced progressive reforms, including women’s suffrage, regional autonomy, secularism, divorce, and expropriation for public interest. Key reforms included Catalan autonomy, military reform, religious reform, and land reform.

The CEDA Biennium (1933-1936): A center-right coalition halted reforms and reconciled with the Church. Corruption and strikes led to new elections in 1936.

The Popular Front (1936-Civil War): A leftist coalition won, resuming reforms. Tensions escalated between the left and right, leading to instability.

Education was a priority, with new schools and teachers. Cultural initiatives like La Barraca theater troupe were launched.

SPANISH CIVIL WAR

In July 1936, a conservative military coup led by Franco sparked the Spanish Civil War. The country was divided between Republicans and Nationalists. Germany and Italy supported Franco, while the USSR aided the Republicans. Western democracies remained neutral. The International Brigades volunteered for the Republic. After three years, the Nationalists won, establishing a 40-year dictatorship.

3. World War II (1939-1945)

World War II, the bloodiest conflict in history, stemmed from Germany’s resentment over the Treaty of Versailles and the economic crisis. Totalitarian regimes pursued aggressive policies. Germany invaded Poland in 1939, leading to war. The Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) fought the Allies (France, Britain, USSR, US).

WAR IN EUROPE

Germany’s blitzkrieg tactics led to rapid conquests. France fell in 1940. Britain resisted, and the USSR was invaded in 1941. The US joined after Pearl Harbor. Germany was defeated in 1945.

WAR IN THE PACIFIC

Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941. The US responded with war. Atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan’s surrender.

THE HOLOCAUST

The Nazis systematically exterminated Jews and other groups in concentration and death camps.

HIROSHIMA

The atomic bombing of Hiroshima caused immense destruction and long-term health effects.

NUREMBERG TRIALS

Perpetrators of war crimes were prosecuted, marking a step towards international justice.