Introduction to Biotechnology and Its Applications

Posted on Oct 22, 2024 in Biology

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the application of technology to biological processes and systems, particularly in agriculture, pharmacy, food science, forestry, and medicine. It involves using biological agents in industrial manufacturing and employing living organisms or their derivatives to obtain valuable products.

Examples of Biotechnology Compounds: antibiotics, monoclonal antibodies, alcohol, drugs.

5 Examples of Biotechnology Applications:

  • Human Biotechnology (e.g., using antibiotics)
  • Plant Biotechnology (e.g., developing transgenic plants)
  • Industrial Biotechnology (e.g., producing biodiesel)
  • Fermentation Biotechnology (e.g., making yogurt)

The 5 Eras of Biotechnology:

  • Pre-Pasteur (before 1865)
  • Pasteur Era (1865-1940): Production of ethanol, butanol, acetone, and organic acids
  • Antibiotics Era (1940-1960): Industrial production of penicillin and other antibiotics
  • Post-Antibiotics Era (1960-1975): Production of amino acids, cellular proteins, enzymes, and anaerobic wastewater treatment
  • Modern Biotechnology (1975-2009): Development of antibodies and their application in diagnostic tests

Cellular Organelles:

  • Nucleolus: The core of the nucleus where cellular ribosomes are assembled.
  • Nucleus: Directs cellular activities and contains the genetic material.
  • Mitochondria: Responsible for energy release.
  • Cell Membrane: Encloses the cell and acts as a selectively permeable barrier.
  • Lysosomes: Perform intracellular digestion.
  • Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Site of protein synthesis.
  • Peroxisomes: Vesicles containing oxidative enzymes.
  • Golgi Complex: Packages and modifies proteins for export.
  • Ribosomes: Responsible for protein synthesis.
  • Centrioles: Participate in cell division.
  • Cytoskeleton: Maintains cell shape throughout the cytoplasm.
  • Leucoplasts: Involved in the synthesis of starch, oils, and proteins.

Restriction Enzyme:

An enzyme that recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence in a DNA molecule and cuts the DNA at that point.

Green Biotechnology:

Biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example is the design of transgenic plants that can grow in adverse environmental conditions or are resistant to pests and diseases.

Nucleic Acid:

Nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of repeating polymers of monomers called nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):

A technique used to produce a large number of copies of a particular DNA fragment. It serves to amplify a DNA fragment.

Gene:

A short segment of DNA that instructs the body on how to produce a specific protein. There are approximately 30,000 genes in every human cell.

Clone:

A set of genetically identical individuals derived from a single individual through asexual reproduction.

Palindrome:

A segment of double-stranded DNA where the base sequence of the two strands has twofold rotational symmetry around a central point.

Microbial Metabolism:

The set of processes by which an organism obtains energy and nutrients (e.g., carbon) needed for survival and reproduction.

Classification of Metabolism:

  • Carbon Source:
    • Autotrophs: Obtain carbon from carbon dioxide (CO2).
    • Heterotrophs: Obtain carbon from organic compounds.
  • Reducing Equivalent Source:
    • Lithotrophs: Obtain reducing equivalents from inorganic compounds.
    • Organotrophs: Obtain reducing equivalents from organic compounds.
  • Energy Source:
    • Chemotrophs: Obtain energy from external chemicals.
    • Phototrophs: Obtain energy from light.

Enzyme:

Protein molecules that facilitate and accelerate chemical reactions in living tissues by lowering the activation energy of the reaction.

Enzymatic Reaction Rate:

The rate at which substrate is consumed or product is formed over time.

Enzyme Classification:

  • Oxidoreductases
  • Transferases
  • Hydrolases
  • Isomerases
  • Ligases
  • Lyases

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:

  • Substrate concentration
  • Presence of inhibitors
  • Temperature
  • pH

Michaelis-Menten Kinetics:

Describes the reaction rate of many enzymatic reactions.

Lineweaver-Burk Plot:

A graphical tool used to calculate the kinetic parameters of an enzyme.

Image

Microbial Growth Curve:

  • Lag Phase: Adaptation phase
  • Exponential Phase: Rapid growth and multiplication
  • Stationary Phase: Exponential growth stops due to depletion of essential nutrients; no net increase or decrease in cell number or mass
  • Death Phase: Decline in the number of viable cells

Virus:

A biological entity that requires a host cell to replicate.

Bioreactors:

Vessels used for biochemical reactions involving substrate consumption, biomass generation, and product formation.

Types of Bioreactors:

  • Batch or Discontinuous: The process is carried out for a specific time period.
  • Continuous: Substrate is continuously added, and product is continuously removed.

Fermentation:

An incomplete catabolic oxidation process that results in an organic compound as the final product. It is a biochemical process involving biocatalysis.

Applications of Biotechnology:

  • Acid Digestion (in animals)
  • Alkaline Digestion (in insects and invertebrates)
  • Transgenic Organisms: Exchange of genes from different species (e.g., tomatoes with anthocyanins)

Cellular Organization:

  • Multicellular: Plants and animals
  • Unicellular Eukaryotes: Algae, protozoa, fungi
  • Prokaryotes: Bacteria
  • Viruses: Non-cellular entities

DNA:

  • Located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
  • Forms a double helix structure
  • Contains the bases Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C)
  • Has a right-handed twist
  • Encodes genetic information for protein synthesis
  • Composed of deoxyribose sugar

RNA:

  • Located primarily in the cytoplasm
  • Three main types: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
  • Found in the endoplasmic reticulum
  • Less stable than DNA
  • Composed of ribose sugar