Introduction to Ethics and Morality
1. The Problem of Freedom
Freedom is the right of every person to choose. However, are people born with total freedom? The answer is no. A person born in Africa does not have the same opportunities as a person born in Europe. A child whose parents are poor does not have the same opportunities as a child whose parents are rich. Furthermore, from birth, we are guided by laws we cannot break. Therefore, we do not have total freedom.
1.1 Determinism
Determinism argues that humans are not free, but determined in their choices: they do what they can do at any time. There are different types of determinism:
- Scientific Determinism: This encompasses many streams of thought that believe human behavior can be explained by empirically observable dimensions. These include genetic endowment, the role of the unconscious, economic and social class, and irresistible external influences.
1.2 Arguments Against Determinism
Despite these theories, determinism does not explain why we feel free, why we feel responsible for our actions, or why we praise or disapprove of certain behaviors. It also doesn’t explain the existence of morals, law, religion, or politics.
2. Conditional Freedom
We have freedom, but it is not total. We are free to choose how to deal with situations, but some things are beyond our control. These include genetic endowment, society, education, historical context, culture, and religious beliefs. However, conditioning is not determination. Our freedom is conditional, but not nonexistent.
3. Responsibility and Freedom
Responsibility cannot exist without freedom. Without freedom, there is no merit or guilt. Unless we act with total freedom, we cannot be punished. For example, if a criminal gang forces you to rob a bank by threatening your sister, you are not acting freely and cannot be fully judged. However, if your grandfather sends you money, the credit belongs to him, not you.
3.1 Responsibility for Physical Traits
We cannot be held responsible for physical traits like height, weight, or skin color. We did not choose these traits and therefore did not act freely in acquiring them. However, we can choose to modify them through diet, exercise, or other means.
4. External and Internal Freedom
External Freedom is the ability to act as we see fit, respecting laws and social customs, without external obstructions. This freedom is lost in detention or dictatorial states.
Internal Freedom is the ability to make decisions about issues that affect us. This is true moral freedom, which no one can take away. It requires developing and deepening our understanding.
5. Ethics and Morality
Morality is what people within a society believe is right or wrong. Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality, addressing three questions: what is morality, how is it constructed, and how does it apply to life?
6. Temperament and Character
Temperament and character are not the same. Temperament is innate and influences how we approach situations. Character is developed over time through experiences and choices.
7. Virtue
Virtue is the predisposition to do good acquired through practice. The moral life has a goal, and achieving it requires developing good habits (virtues) and avoiding bad habits.
8. Types of Value
Examples: Aesthetic (jewel), Economic (luxury car), Utility (hammer), Moral (Gandhi).
9. Types of Norms
Examples: Religious (do not kill), Legal (do not steal), Social (arrive to class on time), Moral (give up your seat to the elderly).
10. Characteristics of Moral Values
Moral values are incorporated into our lives through willingness and effort. They are personal qualities possessed only by people. They are chosen and universal, meaning everyone should appreciate them. Examples include solidarity, honesty, sincerity, loyalty, respect, fairness, and equality.
11. Aesthetic vs. Moral Values
Opportunities for aesthetic values are not equally distributed, but moral values can be achieved through effort. Aesthetic values are appreciated by a limited group, while moral values are universal.
12. The Basis of Morality
The basis of morality lies in finding reasons to reaffirm beliefs and justify what is said, providing grounds for believing in what is thought.
13. Four Ways of Grounding Morality
- Logos (Reason): Aristotle believed morality stems from our capacity for reason and argumentation.
- Feelings: David Hume argued that morality is based on feelings of pleasure or displeasure.
- Freedom: Immanuel Kant believed that morality requires freedom of choice, which gives humans dignity.
- Argumentation (Dialogical Ethics): Karl Otto Apel suggested that engaging in reasoned argumentation implies accepting fundamental moral norms and recognizing others as valid interlocutors.
14. Aristotelian Golden Mean
Aristotle believed that the purpose of our actions is happiness, achieved through virtues. Virtues lie in the middle ground between extremes. For example, ambition is the mean between conformity (deficiency) and arrogance (excess). The mean can vary between individuals.
15. Individual and Social Hedonism
Individual hedonism (Epicureanism) prioritizes individual pleasure in decision-making. Social hedonism (Utilitarianism) believes in maximizing happiness for the greatest number of beings.