Introduction to Linguistics: Basic and Derived Concepts
Basic and Derived Concepts in Linguistics
Ellipsis
Definition: Reduction of grammatical complexity (avoiding repetition).
Unmarked
Definition: Basic order S-P-O-A-C.
Background
Already a basic clause.
Fronting
S-P-O-A-C-A becomes O-C-A-S-P.
S-P Inversion
S-P-A becomes A-P-S.
Relative Pronoun Omission
Occurs only preceding the subject.
Example: The stories which he invented were incredible.
Omission in Comparative Clauses
Example:
Rodrigo should learn these rules faster than Pablo should learn these rules.
Rodrigo should learn these rules faster than Pablo.
Coordination Reduction
(Avoid repetition)
Example:
Sara was amazed by what she saw and Sara was delighted by what she saw.
Sara was amazed and delighted by what she saw.
Passive Constructions
Passive: Derived clause.
Active: Basic clause.
The object of the active clause becomes the subject of the passive clause.
The subject of the active clause becomes the agent of the passive clause.
Example:
S (That horrible dog) P (bit) O (my little sister) on her leg (active).
My little sister was bitten on her leg by that horrible dog.
Stylistic Structure Changing Rules
Clefts: It was…that
Example: It was Edward Bloom that saw the blonde girl at school.
Existential Clauses
There (S) + verb to be (any form).
Example: There was nobody around.
Extraposition
S goes at the end and it is replaced by IT at the beginning.
Example:
That my sweet daughter said “daddy” made me the happiest man in the world.
IT made me the happiest man in the world that my sweet daughter said “daddy”.
Text
Writing
An organic process which does not depend on copying a model.
Writing Process Stages
- Planning
- Targeting
- Organizing
- Drafting
- Editing
- Rewriting
Text
Any piece of writing which purpose is to: persuade, inform, describe, or give an instruction.
Persuasive Text
Wants you to do something (advertisements, TV commercials, etc.).
It might use: repeated words, text in capital letters, exclamation marks, rhetorical questions, and emotional side arguments.
Informative Texts
Advise or tell you about something (newspaper article, a website, handout from school). They usually: avoid repetition, contain facts, give information in a clear way.
Instructive Text
Instruct or tell how to do something (recipe, TV manual, etc.).
Are usually written, the word “you” is not often used, language is direct and there are no unnecessary words, “must” and “must not” are often used, sometimes uses pictures or diagrams to help understanding.
Descriptive Text
Wants you to picture what it is describing to you (novels, travel books, etc.). They make use of adjectives and adverbs, use comparisons to help picture it – something is like something – and employ the five senses.
The Notion of the Text
Concepts
Context
Physical or psychological reality. It’s also the situation and time in which the linguistic act takes place, or the conventional knowledge of the world that we have in our minds. Can be real, evoked, imaginary, and provided by the text itself.
Cohesion
Text’s unity and typically occurs on the surface of the text and it is the way in which the components of the text are mutually connected with a sequence. It helps the text stick together and form a unit.
Coherence
Is the way in which the components of the text are mutually accessible and relevant.
Intentionality
The producer’s intentions.
Acceptability
It refers to the use or relevance for the receiver.
Informativity
Expected vs. unexpected, or known vs. unknown.
Situationality
Factors which make text relevant.
Intertextuality
Factor which makes the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously existing texts.
Oral Discourse
4 Main Features of Spoken Language
- Happens in real-time and is typically unplanned.
- Reflects back upon immediate social and interpersonal situations.
- Is not sharply divided from written language but exists on a continuum.
- Is most typically face-to-face.
Unplanned Speech
Things that affect speech situations:
External factors and interruptions or overlaps with other speakers.
Written Speech Can Be
- Planned
- Hierarchically structured
- Rephrased or edited
Pausing
Filled or unfilled.
Unfilled Pausing
Is a simple silence and occurs when a shift in topic or a change in direction is about to happen.
Filled Pausing
Is marked by a vocalization: uh, hum, like, well, you know. Indicates a shift in topic or that the speakers have not finished yet (right, well, or okay).
Spoken Language
- Needs to be organized.
- Prefaces what is going to be said.
- Reflects back upon what has been said.
- Marks the opening and closings of topics.
Discourse Markers
Organizers of larger stretches of spoken language and help with the planning and organization of speech.
Examples: “anyway, right, okay, you see, I mean, mind you, so, now.”