Introduction to Philosophy and Social Thought
Greek Society in Crisis
During the 8th to the 7th centuries BC, Greek society underwent a period of crisis and transformation. As populations grew and cities emerged, traditional personal ties weakened, leading to the formation of new social classes and values. This transition culminated in the rise of the Greek polis as a novel political, economic, and social organization. The polis was characterized by:
- Rationalization: Life within the city was structured by stable laws.
- Abstraction: The polis organization involved breaking free from personal dependencies.
- Public Discussion: The polis functioned as a unit of free and equal citizens.
Human Realities
There are multiple realities that shape human experience:
- Physical Reality: The tangible world that surrounds us.
- Affective Reality: The realm of individual feelings and emotions.
- Social Reality: The structured environment governed by rules and laws.
- Symbolic Reality: The domain of shared beliefs and meanings.
Understanding these diverse realities is crucial for comprehending the human condition. Philosophy, with its practical and theoretical branches, explores human actions and the nature of knowledge. Two key branches of theoretical philosophy are:
- Ontology: The study of being and reality.
- Epistemology: The study of knowledge and how we acquire it.
Morality and Ethics
Morality, derived from the Latin word for “customs,” refers to the qualification of actions based on societal codes of conduct. Ethics, stemming from the Greek word “ethos,” pertains to an individual’s character and acquired behavior. It constitutes a rational reflection on moral action.
Social Structure
Social structure refers to the ordered set of positions within a society, distinguished by their interrelationships. According to Pierre Bourdieu, social structure is defined by the unequal distribution of social resources and access to them.
Social Resources
Definition: Social resources encompass anything that holds value and can be acquired in different social situations.
Types: Economic, cultural, social, and symbolic.
Distribution: Individuals differ in the quantity and quality of resources they possess.
Indeterminacy of Value: Resources can be utilized in multiple ways, though not in any arbitrary manner.
Social structure is characterized by a hierarchical dominance of one group over another.
Social and Cultural Values
Characteristics: Values regulate social situations and primarily function to maintain the social structure. They govern the inheritance and legitimate access to resources, the value assigned to resources, and the ways resources are used.
Modes of Operation:
- Values provide a framework for individual action.
- Values influence how resources are utilized.
Values do not have a singular meaning but possess a dual nature:
- They form a collective framework external to the individual.
- They have a subjective and internal character.
Aristotle’s Anthropology
Aristotle’s anthropology builds upon the work of his teacher, Plato, but diverges in key aspects. Two main conceptions can be identified:
- Aristotle views the soul as the form of the body. Living beings are composite substances consisting of matter and form (hylomorphism):
- The living body constitutes the substratum or subject.
- The soul determines the body’s nature, behavior, and functions.
- Aristotle distinguishes humans from other living beings based on their intellectual capacity. He identifies three classes of beings: gods, animals, and humans. The first two can survive independently, while humans cannot. This is where language comes into play, serving as the means by which humans express their intellect and communicate with others.
René Descartes
Descartes establishes a relationship between the soul (res cogitans) and the material body (res extensa). The soul’s primary attribute is rational thought, which is inherent to all humans and distinguishes them from other entities in the world. The body’s principal attribute is extension, making it subject to physical laws and necessities. The soul and body are connected through the pineal gland, located at the base of the brain.
Alienation
Alienation is a central concept in Marx’s philosophy and takes three main forms:
- Alienation from Work: Work becomes alienated when individuals lack control over their activities and do not perform them freely.
- Alienation from the Object: This occurs when the worker does not own the product of their labor.
- Alienation from Society: Society is divided into two groups: the class that produces and the class that appropriates the products.
Marx also considers other forms of alienation, such as the alienation within the family, which reinforces and legitimizes social alienation by creating a false consciousness among the exploited.
Jean-Paul Sartre
Sartre rejects the notion of a universal human essence or moral reference point. Humans are defined by their existence rather than a predetermined nature. This means there are no objective or universal criteria for human action. Consequently, humans are condemned to be free and responsible for creating their own life projects. Human existence is characterized by a constant awareness of this freedom.
Three Ideas of Darwin
- The study of populations.
- Variations are heritable and contribute to diversity.
- Evolution is a genealogical process.