Introduction to Psychology
1. Introduction to Psychology
1.1 What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
1.2 Psychology as a Science
Psychology is a science because it employs the scientific method.
1.3 Cognitive Theory of Motivation
The cognitive theory of motivation explains behavior based on human thought processes and how we interpret events.
1.4 Behavioral Conflicts
Conflicts that can cause a clash in our behavior include: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, and multiple approach-avoidance.
1.5 James-Lange vs. Cannon-Bard Theories of Emotion
The James-Lange theory posits that physiological responses are distinct for each emotion, while the Cannon-Bard theory argues that physiological responses are the same for all emotions.
1.6 Facial Feedback Theory
Facial expressions can influence our emotions, as suggested by the facial feedback theory.
1.7 Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, manage, and respond to one’s own and others’ emotions effectively.
1.8 Achieving Goals
Achieving goals requires persistence and strong direction. People can be motivated by beliefs, values, interests, fears, and other factors.
1.9 Motivating Factors
Motivating factors can be biological, cognitive, or learned.
2. Conditioning and Learning
2.1 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli, while operant conditioning occurs as a result of behavioral consequences.
2.2 Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Reinforcement is generally preferred over punishment because punishment only teaches what not to do, and what is punishment for one person might be reinforcing for another.
2.3 Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment involves applying an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
2.4 Contingent Application
Reinforcement or punishment is applied contingently, meaning it is always applied after the behavior.
3. Sensation and Perception
3.1 Sensory Systems
We have exteroceptor, proprioceptor, and interoceptor senses.
3.2 Sensation vs. Perception
Sensation is the raw sensory input, while perception is how the brain organizes and interprets that input.
3.3 Perceptual Bias
Perceptual bias refers to how past experiences, prejudices, and other factors influence our perception.
4. Memory
4.1 Vision and Depth Perception
Vision and depth perception are facilitated by monocular and binocular cues.
4.2 Memory and Recall
- We remember best what interests us most.
- Information presented first and last is best remembered.
- Interim information is less well-remembered.
4.3 Types of Memory
- Sensory memory briefly records everything that comes through the senses.
- Short-term memory stores material for about 15 seconds and holds about seven items of information simultaneously.
- Long-term memory stores everything learned over a lifetime.
5. Defense Mechanisms and Personality
5.1 Ego Defense Mechanisms
- Repression: Storing anxiety-provoking memories in the unconscious.
- Regression: Reverting to earlier developmental stages.
- Rationalization: Creating explanations for undesirable behaviors or events.
5.2 Character vs. Personality
Character refers to an individual’s moral and ethical qualities, while personality encompasses a broader range of relatively stable physical and psychological characteristics.
5.3 Defense Mechanisms and Psychoanalysis
Defense mechanisms protect the ego from anxiety caused by conflict with the superego. These mechanisms were described by Freud within his psychoanalytic theory.
5.4 Personality Factors
Personality is influenced by factors such as age, sex, neuroendocrine factors, family, social group, and culture.
5.5 Humanistic Personality Theories
Humanistic theories emphasize the inherent goodness of human nature, with Maslow’s theory being a prominent example.
5.6 Learning Theory of Personality
Learning theories, such as those of Skinner and Watson, emphasize the role of learning in shaping personality.
5.7 Vicarious Learning
Vicarious learning, as described by Bandura, involves learning by observing and imitating others.
5.8 Piaget’s Stages of Development
- Sensorimotor Period: 0-2 years
- Preoperational Period: 2-7 years
- Concrete Operational Period: 7-12 years
- Formal Operational Period: 12-15/18 years
5.9 Attitudes
An attitude is a way of being or behaving in a given situation. Its components are cognitive, affective, and behavioral.