Introduction to Psychology: Key Concepts and Biological Foundations
Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology
Early Influences
Father of Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt (1879, Germany)
Student of Wundt: Edward Titchener, Structuralism
Father of American Psychology: William James, Functionalism
7 Major Perspectives in Modern Psychology
- Psychoanalytic: Unconscious processes, unresolved conflicts, past experiences (Sigmund Freud)
- Behavioral: Objective, observable, environmental influences on overt behavior (John B. Watson, 1913)
- Humanistic: Free will, self-actualization, growth-seeking, naturally positive
- Cognitive: Mental processes used in thinking, knowing, remembering, communicating
- Biological: Genetic and biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system
- Evolutionary: Natural selection, adaptation, reproduction (Charles Darwin)
- Sociocultural: Social interaction and cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes
Psychology’s 4 Main Goals
Description: Tells what occurred
Explanation: Tells why a behavior or mental process occurred
Prediction
Change
Types of Research
Basic Research: Primarily conducted to advance core scientific knowledge; most often used in universities and labs
Applied Research: Conducted to solve practical, real-world problems; most often used outside the lab
Ethical Considerations
Informed Consent: Participants are aware of the nature of the study and what to expect
Debriefing: Procedure conducted at the end of the study; participants are informed of the study’s design and purpose, and questions are clarified and answered.
Psychology’s Research Methods
3 Major Research Methods:
- Descriptive Research: Observes and records behavior and mental processes without manipulating variables (survey, interview, case study, archival research)
- Correlational Research: Examines possible relations between variables; designed to meet the goal of prediction
- Experimental Research: Involves the manipulation or control of variables to determine cause and effect; designed to meet the goal of explanation
Ethnocentrism: Belief that one’s culture is typical of all cultures; viewing one’s own ethnic group or culture as central and “correct”
Participant Bias: Problem that occurs when a research participant’s behavior or expectations inadvertently influence the outcome of the research.
Chapter 2: Neuroscience and Biological Foundations
Glial Cell: Cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other functions for neurons; also called glia or neuroglia
Structure of a Neuron
Dendrites: Branching fibers of a neuron that receive information (signals) from other neurons and convey impulses toward the cell body.
Cell Body: Part of the neuron that contains the cell nucleus and other structures that help the neuron carry out its functions; also known as the soma.
Axon: Long, tubelike structure that conveys impulses away from a neuron’s cell body toward other neurons or to muscles or glands
Myelin Sheath: White, fatty coating surrounding the axons of some neurons
Action Potential: Neural impulse, or brief electrical charge, that carries information along the axon of a neuron
Terminal Buttons
Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine: Learning, attention, sleeping, memory, muscle contraction
- Dopamine: Movement, emotion, learning, attention
- Endorphins: Pain perception, positive emotions
- Epinephrine: Emotional arousal, memory
- GABA: Learning, anxiety regulation, major role in inhibitory messages
- Glutamate: Learning, movement, memory, major role in excitatory messages
- Norepinephrine: Attention, arousal, learning, memory, dreaming, emotion, stress
- Serotonin: Dreaming, impulse control, appetite, sensory perception, arousal, temperature regulation, pain suppression
Endocrine System: Network of glands located throughout the body that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Nervous System Organization
Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord; primarily responsible for processing and organizing information
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Composed of the nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the body; divided into two subdivisions:
- Somatic Nervous System: Connects the CNS to sensory receptors and controls skeletal muscles
- Autonomic Nervous System: Controls the body’s involuntary motor responses by connecting the CNS to smooth muscles, glands, and cardiac muscle; divided into two subdivisions:
- Sympathetic Nervous System: Responsible for arousing the body and mobilizing its energy during times of stress; also called the “fight-flight-freeze” system
- Parasympathetic Nervous System: Responsible for calming the body and conserving energy
Forebrain
Collection of upper-level brain structures including the cerebral cortex, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus. Responsible for more advanced and complex functions than the hindbrain.
Limbic System: Interconnected group of forebrain structures involved with emotions, drives, and memory; its two most important structures are the hippocampus and amygdala
Amygdala: Part of the limbic system linked to the production and regulation of emotions, especially aggression and fear
Hippocampus: Seahorse-shaped part of the limbic system involved in forming and retrieving memories
Thalamus: Forebrain structure at the top of the brainstem that relays sensory messages to and from the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus: Small forebrain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern the endocrine system, motives or drives, and is linked to emotions and the reward system
Midbrain
Collection of structures in the middle of the brain responsible for coordinating movement patterns, sleep, and arousal.
Reticular Formation: Set of neurons that helps screen incoming information and helps control arousal
Brainstem: Area of the brain that includes much of the midbrain, pons, and medulla; responsible for automatic survival functions, such as respiration and heartbeat
Hindbrain
Consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Responsible for functions that are fundamental to survival and automatic.
Medulla: Hindbrain structure responsible for vital automatic functions, such as respiration and heartbeat
Pons: Hindbrain structure involved in respiration, movement, waking, sleep, and dreaming
Cerebellum: Hindbrain structure responsible for coordinating fine muscle movement, balance, and some perception and cognition
The Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex: Thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental processes (damage to this area can result in issues such as dementia and suicidal ideation)
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal Lobes: Govern motor control, speech production, and higher cognitive processes, such as executive functions, intelligence, and personality
Temporal Lobes: Involved in audition (hearing), language comprehension, memory, and some emotional control
Occipital Lobes: Primarily responsible for vision and visual perception
Parietal Lobes: Bodily sensations are received and interpreted
Chapter 3: Stress, Coping, and Health Psychology
Stress: The interpretation of specific events, called stressors, as threatening or challenging; the physical and psychological reactions to stressors are known as the stress response
Stressor: A trigger or stimulus that induces stress
Sources of Stress
- Life changes
- Conflict
- Job stress
- Cataclysmic events
- Hassles
- Frustration
- Acute/chronic stress
Conflict: Forced choice between two or more incompatible alternatives
Hassles: Small problems of daily living that may accumulate and become major sources of stress
Frustration: Negative emotional state resulting from a blocked goal
Acute Stress: Short-term state of arousal in response to a perceived threat or challenge that has a definite endpoint
Chronic Stress: Continuous state of arousal in which demands are perceived as greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with them
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Selye’s three-stage (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) reaction to chronic stress; a pattern of nonspecific, adaptational responses to a continuing stressor
SAM System: Body’s initial, rapid-acting stress response, involving the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla; also called the sympatho-adreno-medullary (SAM) system
HPA Axis: Body’s delayed stress response, involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal cortex; also called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis
Homeostasis: Body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium, or a steady state of internal balance
Relationship Between Stress and the Immune System: When we’re under stress, our immune systems are less able to regulate the normal inflammation system, which makes us more susceptible to diseases, such as bursitis, colitis, Alzheimer’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, periodontal disease, and even the common cold.