Introduction to Psychology: Theories, Development, and Applications

Posted on Sep 15, 2024 in Psychology and Sociology

Introduction to Psychology

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a method for investigating unconscious mental processes. The Theory of Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud, whose work focused on the structure and function of the human mind.

Major Players in Psychoanalysis

Carl Jung

Carl Jung, one of Freud’s earliest pupils, developed analytical psychology. According to Jung, the unconscious mind has two parts:

  • The personal unconscious, containing an individual’s experiences.
  • The collective unconscious, a reservoir of human experience.

Jung also proposed two basic personality types, mental attitudes, and functions.

Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler differed from Freud and Jung by emphasizing the sense of inferiority as the primary motivating force in life. This sense begins in infancy when a child realizes others are better able to care for themselves. Adler highlighted inferiority feelings stemming from three key relationships:

  • The individual and work
  • Friends
  • Loved ones

Avoiding inferiority in these relationships can lead to unrealistic life goals, often expressed as a will to power and dominance, resulting in antisocial behaviors.

Otto Rank

Otto Rank introduced a theory of neurosis, attributing it to the trauma of birth. He described development as progressing from dependence on the mother and family to physical independence and intellectual dependence on society. Rank emphasized the will, defined as a positive force that organizes and integrates the self.

Sigmund Freud

Freud’s first innovation was recognizing unconscious psychiatric processes that follow different rules than conscious experience. Under the unconscious’s influence:

  • Thoughts and feelings can be displaced.
  • Disparate ideas can be condensed.
  • Thoughts can be dramatized as images.
  • Objects can be represented symbolically.

Dreams

Freud believed dreams were the path to the unconscious mind, revealing our thoughts and feelings. Analyzing dreams can provide a psychological portrait of an individual.

Sleep Cycles

There are two main types of sleep:

  • Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep (quiet sleep)
  • Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep (active or paradoxical sleep)

Developmental Psychology

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget assumed learning is an active process of construction, not passive assimilation. He proposed two states: equilibrium and disequilibrium. We are motivated to learn when in disequilibrium, seeking understanding. Equilibration involves assimilation (matching reality to existing cognitive structures) and accommodation (reorganizing thoughts when inconsistencies arise).

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
  1. Sensorimotor (birth-2 years): Explores the world through senses and motor activity. Initially, babies can’t differentiate themselves from the environment. They develop an understanding of cause and effect and object permanence.
  2. Preoperational (2-7 years): Improved speech and imagination. Develops basic numerical abilities and the ability to delay gratification. Still egocentric and struggles with conservation of matter and distinguishing fantasy from reality.
  3. Concrete operational (7-11 years): Increased abstract reasoning and ability to generalize. Understands conservation of matter.
  4. Formal operations (12-15 years): Can think hypothetically, form and test hypotheses, organize information, and reason scientifically.

Development progresses through interaction with the environment; stages cannot be skipped.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

  1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1.5 years): Basic virtue: Hope
  2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1.5-3 years): Basic virtue: Will
  3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years): Basic virtue: Purpose
  4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years): Basic virtue: Competency
  5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): Basic virtue: Fidelity
  6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 years): Basic virtue: Love
  7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years): Basic virtue: Care
  8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Basic virtue: Wisdom

Aging

Gerontology is the study of aging’s social, psychological, and biological aspects. Ageism is stereotyping and discriminating against individuals based on age.

Stanford Prison Experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment aimed to demonstrate that situational factors, rather than personality, cause negative behavior in prisons. It involved a prison simulation with participants playing the roles of guards and prisoners.

Criminal Psychology

Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by callousness, lack of empathy, self-centeredness, remorselessness, and persistent antisocial behavior. Examples of individuals with psychopathic traits include John Wayne Gacy and Jeffrey Dahmer.