Introduction to Sociology: Key Concepts and Theories
Chapter 7: Social Control & Deviance
Definitions
Internalization: The process by which a norm becomes part of an individual’s personality, thus conditioning that individual to conform to society’s expectations.
Sanctions: The rewards & punishments used to reinforce conformity to norms.
Social Control: Enforcing norms through either internal or external means.
Deviance: A behavior that violates significant social norms.
Stigma: A mark of social disgrace that sets a deviant individual apart from the rest of society.
Primary Deviance: The occasional violation of norms; the individuals who commit it do not see themselves as deviant & neither does society.
Secondary Deviance: A lifestyle of deviance; results in the individuals who commit it being labeled as deviant & accepting that label as true.
Crime: Any act that is labeled as such by those in authority & is prohibited by law.
Criminal-Justice System: The system of police, courts, & corrections that has jurisdiction once a crime has been committed.
Questions
What are the different types of sanctions used in society?
Positive Sanction: An action that rewards a particular kind of behavior.
Negative Sanction: A punishment or the threat of punishment used to enforce conformity.
Formal Sanction: A reward or punishment that is given by some formal organization or regulatory body, such as a school, business, or government.
Why is social control important in society?
Enforcing norms through either internal or external means is essential for the smooth function of society. It teaches individuals how they are supposed to behave socially. Society cannot survive without an effective system of social control.
What are the social functions of deviance?
- Helps to clarify norms.
- Unify the group.
- Diffuse tension.
- Promote social change.
What impact does the label of deviance have?
It makes you socially disgraced & sets you apart from society.
Be able to briefly describe/identify the different types of crime.
Violent Crime: Murder or robbery.
Property Crime: Stealing or damaging property.
Victimless Crime: Prostitution/gambling.
White-Collar Crime: Fraud/toxic pollution.
Organized Crime: Mafia/gangs.
What are the components of the criminal-justice system?
Police, courts, corrections, prisons.
Chapter 8: Social Stratification
Definitions
Social Stratification: The process of dividing societies into categories, ranks, or classes based on certain characteristics.
Social Inequality: The unequal sharing of scarce resources & social rewards.
Class System: A system of social stratification in which the distribution of scarce resources & rewards is determined on the basis of achieved statuses.
Social Class: A grouping of people with similar levels of wealth, power, and prestige.
Socioeconomic Status: A rating that combines social factors such as level of education, occupational prestige, & place of residence with the economic factor of income in order to determine an individual’s relative position in a stratification system.
Social Mobility: The movement between or within social classes.
Poverty: A standard of living that is below the minimum level considered adequate by society.
Poverty Level: The minimum annual income needed by a family to survive as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau.
Life Chances: The likelihood that individuals have of sharing in the opportunities & benefits of society.
Questions
What are the different types of stratification systems? Which is most common in the world today?
Caste systems (a system of social stratification in which resources & rewards are distributed on the basis of ascribed statuses) & Class Systems. Class systems are more common.
How did Karl Marx divide society into classes?
Bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of production in a capitalist society (according to Marx).
Proletariat: Workers who sell their labor in exchange for wages in a capitalist society (according to Marx).
What are the three dimensions of social stratification? How are they connected to each other?
Wealth: A combination of an individual’s assets – the value of everything the person owns – & income – money earned through salaries & investment.
Power: The ability to control the behavior of others, with or without their consent.
Prestige: The respect, honor, recognition, or courtesy an individual receives from other members of society.
More prestige usually means having a good job, therefore being wealthy, & more wealth means more power.
What are the three methods used for determining social class? Which is the “best” in your opinion?
Reputational Method: A technique used to rank individuals according to social class in which individuals in the community rank other community members based on what they know of their characters & lifestyles.
Subjective Method: A technique used to rank individuals according to social class in which the individuals themselves are asked to determine their own social rank.
Objective Method: A technique used to rank individuals according to social class in which sociologists define social class according to factors such as income, occupation, & education.
Objective because it is less likely to be biased since the subjective & reputational methods use people’s opinions.
Name & briefly describe the 6 social classes in the United States.
Upper Class: 1%, prestigious universities, CEOs/Investors, New & Old money.
Upper Middle Class: Advanced degrees, Business executives/professionals.
Lower Middle Class: HS/Some college, lower-level managers/small business owners, comfortable lives but must work hard to maintain it.
Working Class: HS, Factory/Labor [Blue-collar], chance of dropping class.
Working Poor: Lowest paying jobs, some HS, service workers.
Underclass: Some HS, undesirable jobs, poverty.
What are the different types of social mobility?
Horizontal [within a social class] & Vertical [Intergenerational: several generations of one family or Intragenerational: within a person’s lifetime]. Upward can occur because of technological change/individual effort while downward because of illness/divorce/etc.
How is poverty determined in the United States?
Minimum income for a family to survive.
How are life chances different for poor Americans?
Not enough food/nutrition means shorter lives & more illness.
Chapter 9: Racial & Ethnic Relations
Definitions
Race: The category of people who share inherited physical characteristics & who are perceived by others as being a distinct group.
Ethnicity: A set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes one group from another group.
Ethnic Group: Individuals who share a common cultural background & a common sense of identity.
Minority Group: A group of people who are singled out & unequally treated because of their physical characteristics or cultural practices.
Dominant Group: A group that possesses the ability to discriminate by virtue of their greater power, privilege, & social status in a society.
Discrimination: A denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership.
Prejudice: An unsupported generalization about a category of people.
Stereotype: An oversimplified, exaggerated, or unfavorable generalization about a category of people.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that results in behavior that makes the prediction come true.
Racism: The belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is naturally superior to other races or ethnic groups.
Questions
What is the difference between race & ethnicity? How do sociologists study race?
Race focuses on physical features, while ethnicity focuses on cultural characteristics.
How does one determine minority or dominant group status?
Determining both groups can be easy by seeing the amount of power, privilege & status in society.
What types of inequality do minority groups experience? What is the difference between these inequalities?
Prejudice [stereotypes/racism] & discrimination [legal/institutionalized].
Briefly describe each of the patterns of minority group treatment & provide a famous example.
Cultural Pluralism (each culture keeps its identity): Switzerland – 3 languages.
Assimilation (blending of culture): America.
Legal Protection (protected by law): United States.
Segregation (to separate): “De jure” “de facto”.
Subjugation (to control by force): Slavery.
Population Transfer (self-explanatory): Native Americans.
Extermination (self-explanatory): Hitler, Jews.
Name the different American minority groups that we discussed in class.
African American, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans.
Chapter 10: Gender, Age, & Health
Definitions
Gender: The behavioral & psychological traits considered appropriate for men & women.
Gender Roles: The specific behaviors & attitudes that a society establishes for men & women.
Gender Identity: The awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture.
Patriarchy: A system in which men are dominant over women.
Sexism: The belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other.
Ageism: The belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category.
Graying of America: A phenomenon of the growing percentage of elderly Americans as part of the total U.S. population.
Baby-Boom Generation: Collective term for the approximately 76 million children born in the United States from 1946 through 1964.
Managed Care: Alternative health-insurance plans used to help control health care costs.
Questions
Describe the stereotypical man or woman (a man/woman who fits into their gender roles).
Men: Macho man, strong, intelligent.
Women: Girly girl, delicate, elegant.
How do gender roles & gender identity affect socialization & personal development?
Individuals learn gender roles through socialization. Babies are given different toys & even children have different expected behavior, interests, & strengths.
How do gender roles help encourage social inequality?
Each gender is treated differently which teaches sexism when gender is a factor used to determine social standing.
What age most commonly experiences ageism? How does this age group experience ageism?
65+. They’re stereotyped to be unproductive, cranky, & physically/mentally impaired.
What is happening to the world’s population in terms of aging?
It is increasing, especially because of the baby-boom generation.
Why is the cost of health care rising? What is being done to limit this raise in cost?
Advances in medical technology & increased spending on prescription drugs. Treating them without hospital stays & things such as Obamacare & Medicare/aid.
Chapter 11: The Family
Definitions
Family: A group of people who are related through marriage, blood, or adoption & who live together & share economic resources.
Nuclear Family: A family form that consists of one or both parents & their children.
Extended Family: A family form that consists of three or more generations of a family sharing the same residence.
Kinship: A network of people who are related by marriage, birth, or adoption.
Monogamy: The marriage of one man to one woman.
Polygamy: A marriage with multiple partners.
Heterogamy: The tendency for individuals to marry people who have social characteristics different from their own.
Dual-Earner Families: Families in which both husband & wife have jobs.
Sandwich Generation: A group of Americans caught between the needs of their children & their aging parents.
Voluntary Childlessness: The conscious choice to remain childless.
Questions
Name the types of relatives included in each level of kinship (primary, secondary, & tertiary).
Primary: Mother, father, sister, spouse, daughter, son.
Secondary: Grandparents, grandchildren, in-laws, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews.
Tertiary: Great-grandparents, great-grandchildren, great-aunts, great-uncles, and cousins.
Be able to identify the various marriage & kinship patterns for families (marriage, residential, descent, & authority – Ms. Kate will include all the options).
What are the four functions of the family?
- Socialization.
- Economic and Emotional Security.
- Regulation of sexual activity.
- Reproduction.
What is the “typical” American family? How/why has that idea changed in recent years?
A working father, stay-at-home mom, and children in school. Now, women have more opportunities to work so more families are becoming dual-income families and some even choose to remain childless.
What is the difference between homogamy & heterogamy? Which is more common in the United States?
Homogamy is a marriage between two people who match in criterion [social status, etc.], while heterogamy is a marriage between two people who differ in criterion. Homogamy is more common.
Why has there been an increase in dual-earner families in the United States?
Women are participating more in the labor force.
What are the four reasons for rising divorce rates?
- Easier to divorce because of new laws.
- More wives work so there is no need for economic dependence.
- Society attaches less stigma to divorce.
- Many people expect more from marriage and are not ready to accept marital problems.
Describe recent trends in marriage & family (delayed marriage, delayed childbearing & childlessness, dual-earner marriages, one-parent families, & remarriage). What changes have been occurring?
More people are delaying marriage, deciding to remain childless or have fewer children. More are dual-earner families and one-parent families are more common. Many remarry because there is less stigma surrounding all of these.
The Economy & Politics
Definitions
Economic Institution: A system of roles & norms that governs the production, distribution, & consumption of goods & services.
Factors of Production: The resources that can be used to produce & distribute goods & services.
Capitalism: An economic model in which the factors of production are owned by individuals & that is regulated by the forces of profit & competition.
Socialism: An economic model in which the factors of production are owned by the government, which regulates all economic activity.
Laissez-Faire Capitalism: A pure form of capitalism in which the government does not interfere with the economy.
Communism: A political & economic system in which property is communally owned.
Political Institution: A system of roles & norms that governs the distribution & exercise of power in society.
Legitimacy: The right of those people in power to control, or govern, others.
Authoritarianism: A type of government in which power rests firmly with the state.
Questions
What are the three questions that economies must be able to answer?
- What goods and services should be produced?
- How should these goods and services be produced?
- For whom should these goods and services be produced?
Differentiate between the three different sectors of economic systems.
Primary Sector: A sector of the economy that deals with the extraction of raw materials from the environment.
Secondary Sector: The sector of the economy that concentrates on the use of raw materials to manufacture goods.
Tertiary Sector: A sector of the economy that concentrates on the provision of services.
Compare & contrast capitalism & socialism. Which is more common in today’s society?
Capitalism is controlled by individuals rather than the government regulating things such as the factors of production. The laws of supply and demand exist within capitalism while in socialism economic activity is controlled by social need and central governmental planning. Laissez-faire and Free-enterprise obviously do not exist in socialism. Capitalism is technically more common but neither exists in pure form today.
Why is it necessary to have legitimacy to have power?
Legitimacy means the people approve/accept one’s governing and authority, if not there would be an uproar and riots.
What is authority? What are the three different types of authority? Provide famous examples of each type. Which do you think makes the strongest leader?
Authority is legitimate power. Traditional: Bahrain. Charismatic: Hitler. Rational-legal: US. A charismatic leader because they rule based off of passion and public speaking skills.
Compare & contrast democratic & authoritarian systems. Which is more common in today’s society?
Traditional Authority: Power that is legitimated by long-standing custom.
Rational-Legal Authority: Power that is legitimated by formal rules & regulations.
Charismatic Authority: Power that is legitimated on the basis of the personal characteristics of the individual exercising the power.
Traditional because there are more monarchies than dictatorships today.
What are the four conditions necessary for a democratic society?
- Industrialization.
- Access to information.
- Limits on power.
- Shared values.
What are the different types of authoritarian rule?
Dictatorship: An authoritarian type of government in which power is in the hands of a single individual.
Totalitarianism: The most extreme form of authoritarian government. Under totalitarianism, government leaders accept few limits on their authority.
How do we develop our political beliefs?
- Family.
- Mass media.
- School.
- Peer groups.
Chapter 13: Education
Definitions
Education: A system of roles & norms that ensures the transmission of knowledge, values, & patterns of behavior from one generation to the next.
Schooling: Instruction by specially trained teachers who follow officially recognized policies.
Questions
What does each of the three perspectives (functionalist, conflict, & interactionist) believe are the functions of education?
Functionalist: Teaching knowledge and skills / Transmission of culture / Social integration / Occupational placement.
Conflict: Social control / Tracking.
Interactionist: Student-teacher interaction / Communication.
How does each of the three perspectives differ from each other in opinions about education?
Chapter 14: Sport & the Mass Media
Definitions
Sport: Competitive games that are won or lost on the basis of physical skills & played according to specific rules.
Information Society: A society in which the exchange of information is the main social & economic activity.
Media Convergence: The idea that mass media are merging & are no longer separate entities.
Knowledge-Gap Hypothesis: A theory that states as new information enters society, wealthy & better-educated members acquire it at a faster rate than poor & less-educated people.
Digital Divide: The gap between those with access to new technologies & those without.
Questions
What are the three necessary conditions to be considered a sport?
- Have specific rules.
- Physical skills.
- Be competitive.
What is the connection between sports & industrialization?
Six characteristics define both.
Secularization: To become an institution in its own right, sport had to move from the realm of religion to that of the ordinary world.
Equality: In the past, only certain people were allowed to participate in physical games.
Specialization: Modern athletes specialize much more than athletes in the past. Specialized aides such as coaches, trainers, managers, etc. also participate in sport.
Rationalization: The process by which each feature of human behavior becomes subject to calculation, measurement, and control. Sports are played with the same rules across the world.
Bureaucratization: With set rules, a formal organization must be charged with developing and enforcing those rules.
Quantification: Athletes want to know where they stand in relation to other athletes, both past and present. The “win at any cost” mentality can lead to illegal drug use.
What six characteristics distinguish sport as a social institution?
- Secularization.
- Equality.
- Specialization.
- Rationalism.
- Bureaucratization.
- Quantification.
Briefly describe how each type of media led to another (writing & paper to the printing press, etc.)
Paper was invented to simply keep a record of complex trade. Books took too long to write, so the process of printing was later created. After printing, too much paper was being wasted, so technology helped lessen the waste as well as simply keeping records even more.
What types of mass media are available in the United States?
- Print.
- Audio.
- Visual.
- Online.
How has media convergence become common lately? What do sociologists predict will happen with media convergence?
The internet has essentially every other form of media today. It will slowly continue merging, creating one source of media.
What does each of the three perspectives believe about mass media?
Functionalist: Keep track of what is happening, interpret information, transmit cultural values, and entertain people.
Conflict: Convinces people to accept the existing power structure. More opportunities for inequality.
Interactionist: Shape everyday social interactions. Many people plan events around media.