Introduction to Syntax: Sentence Structure and Types
1. Introduction to Syntax
1.1. Definition of Syntax
Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure of sentences and their components (phrases).
1.2. Defining a Sentence
Defining a sentence precisely can be challenging. From a psychological perspective, a sentence is a meaningful set of words. From a prosodic viewpoint, it’s a set of words between two pauses. Logically, it’s the spoken expression of a thought.
In grammar, a sentence is defined as an ordered set of words related to a verb and structured into two immediate constituents: the subject and the predicate. Every sentence follows this rule:
Oración → SN + SV
2. Sentence Structure
2.1. Immediate Constituents
A sentence, as mentioned, is divided into two fundamental parts or immediate constituents: the subject and the predicate.
- Subject: The subject is the entity that performs or receives the action of the verb. It can be an agent (if it performs the action) or a patient (if it receives the action). Its nucleus is always a noun phrase (NP).
- Predicate: The predicate is what is said about the subject. Its nucleus is always a verb phrase (VP).
2.2. Agreement Rule
Besides having a subject and predicate, a sentence must also follow the agreement rule: the core of the subject (the noun) and the core of the predicate (the verb) must agree in person and number.
Example:
- Girls (3rd person plural subject) / want (3rd person plural verb) ice cream.
- I (1st person singular subject) / wanted (1st person singular verb) a car.
2.3. Exceptions to the SN + SV Rule
While sentences typically follow the SN + SV rule, there are exceptions. The subject might be implicit and deduced from the verb ending. This is called an elliptical subject.
Example:
I wanted potatoes (it’s implied that “I” is the subject).
There are also impersonal sentences where, due to the verb’s characteristics, a subject is not required.
Example:
It rained all afternoon.
2.4. Sentence Types
Sentences can be classified from different perspectives:
2.4.1. Based on Enunciative Type (Speaker’s Intention)
- Declarative: Affirm or deny a fact. Example: It’s three-quarters past.
- Interrogative: Ask a question. Example: Have you seen Lanna?
- Imperative: Give an order. Example: Close the door.
- Exclamatory: Express an emotion. Example: Look at that donkey!
- Optative: Express a wish. Example: I wish I could pass the exam.
2.4.2. Based on Verb Characteristics
- Predicative: Built around a predicative verb (e.g., sing, leave, live, read). Example: I sing a song.
- Copulative: Contain a copula (be, seem, appear). These verbs link the subject and predicate, and the predicate expresses a state or quality of the subject. Example: Mary is nice.
- Impersonal: Lack a subject and contain the verb haber or a verb referring to meteorological phenomena (e.g., rain, snow). Example: It’s late, It’s cold; There are too many people.
- Unaccusative: The subject appears after the verb, like a direct object. These sentences use unaccusative verbs (e.g., go, come, arrive, be born, die). Example: Many people died, Three eggs remain.
2.4.3. Based on Syntactic Complexity
- Simple sentence: Contains a single conjugated verb. Example: The mother prepares the noodles.
- Compound sentence: Contains more than one verb, which can be conjugated, an infinitive, a gerund, or a participle. It has more than one SN + SV structure. Example: He said he wanted to go to the cinema; Marta sings and Laura plays the guitar.
2.5. Compound Sentences
Compound sentences are classified into two types: coordinate and subordinate.
2.5.1. Coordination
Coordination links simple sentences at the same level without a dependency relationship. The element linking these sentences is called a nexus.
Different types of coordinate sentences exist depending on the nexus:
| Coordinate Type | Nexus | Features | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Copulative | and, nor, neither | Adds sentences together | He called me and stayed at home; He neither worked nor left work. |
| Disjunctive | or, either | Presents alternatives | Either you pass or you fail. |
| Adversative | but, yet, however | Second sentence contrasts with the first | I’m from Madrid, but I support Nastic. |
| Distributive | now…now, neither…nor, the one…the other | Distributes or alternates actions | Now he laughs, now he cries. |
| Illative | so, therefore, thus | Second sentence is a consequence of the first | I don’t like it, so I won’t eat it. |
| Explanatory | that is, in other words, namely | Second sentence clarifies the first | He’s an actor, that is, he works in the entertainment industry. |
2.5.2. Subordination
In subordination, sentences are not at the same level; there’s a main sentence on which the rest depend. There’s a relationship of inclusion: the subordinate sentence is part of the main sentence.
There are three types of subordinate clauses:
- Substantive: Function as a noun phrase (NP) and can perform its functions (subject, direct object, attribute). Example: [I want [to come]] → “to come” is the direct object of “want”.
- Adjective: Function as an adjective, completing a noun in the main sentence. Example: [The girl [who is blond] is from Reus] → “who is blond” is a relative clause modifying “girl”.
- Adverbial: Function as an adverb, expressing circumstances (time, manner, place, cause, condition, purpose). Example: [He came [when it was too late]] → “when it was too late” is an adverbial clause of time modifying “came”.