Isabel II’s Reign: Regencies, Carlist Wars, and Liberal State
Isabel II (1833-1843): The Regencies
In 1833, Ferdinand VII died, and his daughter Isabel II inherited the crown at the age of three. Until she was declared of age in 1843, two people successively assumed the regency: first, her mother Maria Cristina (from 1833 to 1840), and secondly, General Espartero (1840-1843). This period was characterized by governmental instability, with over twenty different governments during the decade. This instability was largely due to the First Carlist War, which erupted over Don Carlos’s refusal to accept a woman on the throne of Spain and ultimately led to the end of the Old Regime in the country.
Maria Cristina’s Regency and the Rise of Liberalism
Maria Cristina was not inherently liberal, but Don Carlos’s stance forced her government to rely on the Liberals. This led to the first steps in building a liberal state in Spain. Two main parties emerged: the Moderates and the Progressives. Both were liberal and supported Isabel II. Progressives defended national sovereignty, secularism, and broad suffrage, while the Moderates favored strengthening royal power, a restricted census suffrage, and a confessional state.
Early in Maria Cristina’s regency, Cea Bermudez, president of Ferdinand VII’s last government, played a leading role. Although essentially absolutist, he supported granting amnesty to exiled liberals. He also spearheaded the division of Spain into provinces, designed by Development Minister Javier de Burgos, which remains largely unchanged today.
Cea’s successor, Martinez de la Rosa, was commissioned to write the Royal Charter (1834), a letter granted by the Regent. It stipulated that sovereignty resided in the King and the Parliament, divided into two chambers: the House of Peers (nobility) and the House of Representatives (the rest of the population). Voting rights were very restricted. The legislative initiative was reserved for the Crown, and the Courts could only approve or reject bills. The Royal Charter satisfied no one and had a short lifespan.
Mendizabal and the Confiscation of Church Property
In late 1835, Mendizabal took office. To create a body of landowners tied to the liberal regime, to put land not under cultivation to use, and to raise funds for the Carlist Wars, Mendizabal decided to push for the confiscation of church property. The government believed that the confiscation would strengthen the liberal regime, but those who bought the assets (land, convents, etc.) largely belonged to a sector that was not overtly liberal. Furthermore, state revenues resulting from the confiscation were lower than the government had expected.
Political Tensions and the Constitution of 1837
After Mendizabal, the Moderates took over. Liberals feared that they would revert to the old regime, sparking political tension that led to the Mutiny of La Granja (1836). The uprising was successful, and Maria Cristina was forced to swear to the Constitution of 1812. In 1837, the Constitution of 1837 was promulgated, which was more moderate than that of Cadiz but more progressive than the Royal Charter. It defended national sovereignty and a non-confessional state.
However, between 1837 and 1840, Maria Cristina increasingly relied on the Moderates, who gained power. The government shifted towards conservative positions. General Espartero, who had great influence and prestige, criticized this return to conservatism. Maria Cristina met with Espartero to reach a political agreement, but it failed because Espartero demanded the dissolution of Parliament and the cancellation of the reforms, which Maria Cristina refused.
The adoption of the Law on Municipalities, which hindered the Progressives, led to the raising of the national militia. Maria Cristina left the regency and went into exile.
Espartero’s Progressive Regency (1840-1843)
Espartero’s progressive regency began in 1840. He had been a prominent figure in the siege of Bilbao during the Carlist War. He faced a coup organized by Maria Cristina from Paris, which Espartero controlled, executing its promoter, Diego León.
Espartero was a supporter of free trade and enhancing commerce. Catalan businessmen were negatively affected, and revolts broke out. Espartero bombed Barcelona, which made him lose popularity. In 1843, General Narvaez, a Moderate, rebelled against him and defeated Espartero in Torrejón de Ardoz. Espartero went into exile in England. As the Progressives refused to allow Maria Cristina to return, it was decided to advance Elizabeth II’s age of majority (1843).