Ishi’s Legacy: The Last Yahi and the End of a Culture
Week One Movie: Ishi, the Last Yahi
The End of the Yahi People
Ishi, a Yahi Indian, was forced into custody after the near extinction of his people. The elders believed that when people died, so did their cultures. The Yahi culture was forever changed due to contact with white people. Surveyors took resources vital to the Yahi’s winter survival and even posed for pictures with a fur coat they had stolen. The man who took Ishi into custody spoke a different dialect and was not Yahi. Ishi’s story is a journey of the dead and the extinction of the Yahi people.
Ishi’s Journey
A journalist traveled from San Francisco to find the last Yahi and named him Ishi, meaning “man,” because he wouldn’t reveal his true name. Ishi was the last of his people, and only through him could the Yahi culture be understood. Ishi encountered remnants of his family and Yahi culture in an exhibition but showed no hatred. Yahi culture was represented by objects like baskets and tools, as well as language and grammar. It’s unclear whether Ishi had lived in hiding for 40 years. Anthropologist Alfred Kroeber sought an expert on Yahi culture but found someone who was preoccupied with his own work in Canada. Yahi culture was believed to have originated from creation methodology to clan history.
Ishi’s Encounters with the Modern World
Several anthropologists directed Ishi, asking him to demonstrate his skills, such as arrow throwing. One anthropologist perceived Ishi as a “wild Indian” due to his culture. Ishi was shocked by everyday objects like doorknobs and the sheer number of people he encountered in the city. He had never seen more than 40 people at a time in his youth, and even then, those people were taken from him. The California Gold Rush brought a massive influx of people to the area. The Yahi struggled to find food each winter, and violence against them was common as others sought to take their resources. Indians were dehumanized and seen as less than human. The public’s fascination with Ishi led to a fabricated story about him wanting a wife after he saw a white British singer. In reality, he was more surprised by the large crowds.
Ishi’s Life at the Museum
At Kroeber’s anthropology exhibit, Ishi became a living representation of Yahi culture. He demonstrated skills like fire starting and was recognized as a skilled craftsman. Ishi contracted pneumonia after the exhibition’s opening, and while people still wanted to see him, they were prevented from touching him. Ishi was portrayed as a spectacle brought from the jungle to entertain people with his culture. Kroeber used technology to study Ishi’s language, making over 400 recordings on wax cylinders. While they could translate some words, the stories remained unidentifiable. Ishi eventually learned a few hundred English words. Kroeber employed Ishi as a janitor at the exhibition and Ishi would sing Yahi songs to children and patients at a nearby hospital. Kroeber faced criticism for keeping Ishi at the exhibition, but Ishi chose to stay despite being offered the chance to return home. Ishi remained silent about his past.
The Yahi Massacres
Kroeber uncovered information about the massacres of the Yahi people, revealing the suffering they endured. The survivors were called Yahi heroes. In the first massacre, 30 Yahi died, followed by another where 40 were killed, including Ishi’s father. Ishi and his mother escaped by floating among the bodies in the water. In a third massacre, 45 more Yahi were killed. Ishi and his mother hid for years with the few remaining survivors. After persuasion, Ishi embarked on a journey north, towards his homeland. Anthropologists searched for clues about the Yahi for over 20 years, relying on photos and limited information from Ishi. Ishi worried about the spirits of the deceased Yahi and claimed to hear his sister’s voice. After a walk, Ishi returned satisfied, believing that all the Yahi had found their way.
Ishi’s Final Years
Ishi became a teacher, sharing his knowledge with the anthropologists. He taught them specific hunting methods, emphasizing the importance of scent control and even instructing one anthropologist to stop smoking as it violated these guidelines. The anthropologist realized that understanding the Yahi required experiencing their way of life. The remaining Yahi’s hiding place had many restrictions until surveyors discovered their camp, forcing them to live in fear. A statue symbolizing the end of the Yahi’s way of life was displayed at a community event, and Ishi stood there as a figure of importance. The Canadian expert, Sapir, finally met with Ishi after Kroeber’s repeated invitations. Ishi was admitted to the University Hospital in San Francisco with tuberculosis and passed away. Kroeber prevented an autopsy, respecting Ishi’s status as the last of his people. Kroeber shifted to psychology before returning to anthropology and achieving prominence in the field. He rarely spoke about Ishi, and when he did, it was with remorse, remembering him as a great friend. Ishi’s image transformed from a “wild man” to a symbol of a lost culture. The destruction of the Yahi people and their culture led to nostalgia and a recognition of the significance of their extinction.
Week 2 Lecture: Anthropological Fieldwork
Understanding Human Action
Imagine a student abruptly leaving a lecture hall. This action is unusual and can lead to speculation about the student’s motives. The reasons could range from a simple bathroom break to discomfort or even disapproval of the lecture. This seemingly insignificant event highlights the complexity of human action and the importance of context in understanding it. The classroom setting itself influences behavior, promoting attentiveness and discipline. To interpret the student’s actions, we draw upon our everyday knowledge, demonstrating the richness of even the most mundane situations. Understanding why the student left requires a deeper understanding of the context, which is the essence of fieldwork in anthropology. People carry their history and experiences, which shape their actions and provide valuable insights for fieldwork.
Thick Description vs. Thin Description
A superficial explanation, like simply asking the student why they left, would only provide a partial understanding. Thick description, on the other hand, involves exploring the entire context of the event, including cultural reasoning and our own knowledge. Thin description is the opposite, lacking this depth of understanding. Context and meaning are crucial in interpreting human action. Nonverbal communication, such as body language, can convey messages that may differ from the individual’s intent. Fieldwork delves deeper into history, context, and meaning, considering factors like hierarchy, space, and time. Simple descriptions are insufficient to grasp the complexities of human action.
Methods of Understanding Human Action
Several methods can be employed to understand human action:
- Observation: Observing physical movements, like analyzing atoms, can be sufficient in some fields but not in social sciences, where context is crucial.
- Measurement: Measuring consumer behavior in economics can reveal desirability and predict future actions. However, this approach doesn’t capture the full complexity of human motivation.
- Laboratory Experiments: Controlling variables in a lab setting allows for a more scientific approach but removes individuals from their social context, limiting the insights gained about their lives outside the lab.
Lecture 3: History of Anthropology and the Culture Concept
Anthropology and Colonialism
Darwin’s theory of evolution established that humans are one species. However, the concept of the “savage slot” was used to justify colonialism and the need to “civilize” other cultures. Anthropology expanded to study colonial systems, aiming to understand and manage these societies without disrupting their social institutions. The idea of terra nullius, or land belonging to no one, was used to justify conquest.
Manifest Destiny and Social Darwinism
The concept of “survival of the fittest” was misinterpreted and applied to human societies, leading to the idea of inferior races destined to die out. This “social Darwinism,” promoted by Herbert Spencer, was not Darwin’s view of human evolution. Lewis Henry Morgan recognized the complexity and diversity of social organization among native populations. He observed that elements like technology, kinship structure, and political organization were interconnected. Morgan’s evolutionary theory suggested a progression towards individualism, private property, and state-like structures.
Role of Theory in Research
Theory shapes perception and creates facts, enabling interpretation and explanation. It’s a tool for understanding, not merely a bias. Theories are subject to revision through paradigm shifts, new findings, and evolving concerns. Some influential theories in anthropology include:
- Evolutionism: Proposed by Morgan and others.
- British School: Focused on social institutions, structures, systems, and functionalism, examining how elements relate and function within a society.
- American School: Emphasized culture, meaning, uniqueness, and “the native’s point of view.”
- Contemporary Socio-Cultural Anthropology: Combines elements of both schools, seeking to understand meanings within social, political, and economic contexts.
Culture Concept
Culture is defined as “the complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as a member of society.” (SCP p267)
Culture as a System of Meaning
Culture acts as a system of meaning, connecting elements within a cultural system and shaping individual lives. It provides standards of value and enables us to interpret behavior. Culture is often unconscious and taken for granted by those who share it.
Culture as an Integrated Whole?
Culture is often seen as unique to a social group, though acquired through diffusion (Boas). It’s considered arbitrary, with culture determining forms rather than the natural environment (Sahlins). Cultures are sometimes viewed as bounded entities, like billiard balls, leading to the concept of “cultures” or “cultural areas” on a map. This perspective suggests that culture is a total web, with all parts integrated.
Critiques of the Culture Concept
Critiques of the concept of culture as a bounded whole include:
- Ethnographies of the Particular: Lila Abu-Lughod argues for focusing on specific contexts rather than generalizing about entire cultures.
- People Without History: Eric Wolf challenges the idea of isolated cultures, emphasizing the interconnectedness of societies through political and economic processes.
- Villages and State Systems: SCP (47-51) highlights the links between villages and state systems, challenging the notion of villages as worlds apart.
- Cultural Invention: Culture is continuously invented and adapted as people respond to changing circumstances, as seen in examples like the Ghost Dance and Ishi’s adaptation to a new environment.
- Cultural Relativism: Understanding across cultural boundaries is imperfect but possible, requiring a suspension of judgment.
Chapter 2:
1. Compare and contrast the British and American Schools of anthropology.
British School:
- Structural Functionalism: Society is seen as a system of interconnected structures, each with a specific function.
- Scientific Approach: Emphasis on rigorous observation and analysis.
- Synchronic Approach: Focus on the present, neglecting historical context.
- Key Figures: Radcliffe-Brown, Malinowski, Richards.
American School:
- Inductive Approach: Theory emerges from data collected through fieldwork.
- Historical Particularism: Each culture has a unique history that shapes its present.
- Cultural Relativism: Understanding cultures on their own terms.
- Key Figures: Boas, Mead, Sapir.
2. Explain the structural functionalism approach.
Structural functionalism views society as a system of interconnected structures, each with a specific function. Audrey Richards’ work among the Bemba in Zambia demonstrated how food production and consumption served as a social glue, connecting various social structures.
3. Explain Boas’ anthropological approach.
Boas’ inductive approach emphasized fieldwork and the emergence of theory from data. He challenged evolutionary anthropology’s unilinear view of cultural development, advocating for cultural relativism and historical particularism.
4. Describe Margaret Mead’s approach to studying adolescent girls in Samoa.
Mead used purposeful sampling and qualitative research to study adolescent girls in Samoa. She found that adolescence was not universally a time of stress and conflict, challenging biological determinist views.
5. Describe how Mead’s findings influenced anthropology.
Mead’s findings challenged biological determinism and highlighted the importance of culture in shaping human experience, contributing to a greater understanding of human diversity.
6. Summarize the criticism of Mead’s work.
Critics argue that Mead’s assumptions and the way she interacted with her participants may have influenced her findings. Some, like Derek Freeman, have challenged the accuracy of her conclusions.
Chapter 3:
1. Define reflexive thinking.
Reflexive thinking involves considering how one’s own beliefs and biases influence their interpretation of a culture or situation, as well as how others’ views shape their own beliefs.
2. Explain culture shock, ethnocentrism, and cultural relativism.
Culture shock: Feelings of confusion and insecurity arising from living in a new culture (e.g., Fernea’s initial difficulties connecting with Iraqi women).
Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by one’s own standards (e.g., Fernea’s initial resistance to wearing an abayah).
Cultural relativism: Suspending judgment to understand a culture on its own terms (e.g., Fernea’s refraining from expressing her opinion on domestic violence).
3. Compare and contrast the inductive approach used by Geertz and Gluckman.
Both Geertz and Gluckman used an inductive approach, where theory emerges from fieldwork data. Geertz focused on thick description to understand Balinese cockfights as symbolic of social relationships, while Gluckman analyzed a bridge opening in Zululand to understand the interplay of race and class in a colonial context.
4. How does Small’s work differ from that of Malinowski and Fernea?
Small conducted undercover research without her participants’ knowledge or consent, raising ethical concerns. Malinowski and Fernea conducted their research with the full knowledge and consent of their participants. Small also studied her own culture as a native anthropologist, while Malinowski and Fernea studied cultures different from their own.
5. Define the term native anthropologist.
Native anthropologists study their own culture or community, potentially offering greater access and insight. However, they may face challenges in recognizing taken-for-granted aspects of their own culture and may be influenced by their own positionality within that culture.
8. Describe the concepts of unity and diversity.
Unity refers to shared human characteristics, while diversity emphasizes cultural and individual differences. These concepts can coexist within the same context. For example, Fernea’s gender united her with the Iraqi women, but cultural differences created a gap. Small’s study of AnyU showed that diversity within the university could hinder attempts to create unity.
Lecture 5: Individuals-Society
Individuals and Society
This lecture explores two key questions: 1) Why do people do what they do? 2) What is society and how is it reproduced?
Why do people do what they do?
Different perspectives offer insights into human behavior:
- Psychological View: Focuses on perception, cognition, motives, and emotions.
- Biological View: Considers the role of genes and biological factors.
- Sociological View: Examines social relations, networks, norms, socialization, culture, history, and context.
C. Wright Mills: The Sociological Imagination
The sociological imagination connects personal troubles with public issues, exploring how individual experiences are shaped by social structures. It raises questions about human nature, such as whether we are inherently selfish or inclined towards solidarity.
What is society and how is it reproduced?
Society has a structure that may not be readily apparent to its members. Anthropology aims to reveal this structure. Margaret Thatcher’s famous statement, “There is no such thing as society,” highlights a contrasting view that emphasizes individual responsibility.
Structure and Agency
Structures: Institutions, norms, and roles that shape social life.
Agency: Individuals’ capacity to reflect on and act independently within society.
Agency
Agency is not absolute free will but rather the ability to navigate and potentially challenge existing structures. It can be strong (consciously pursued projects) or weak (internalized structures and habits). Unintended consequences of actions can contribute to the reproduction of social structures.
The Subject and Power (Michel Foucault)
Foucault argues that power is not simply repressive but also productive, shaping our desires, intentions, and capacities. We are both subject to and constituted by power relations. Power both constrains and enables.
How does power work?
Power operates through various means, including the erosion of choice, manipulation of outcomes, threat of force, and the influence of authority or seduction.
Lecture 6: World View Religion Meaning
World View/Culture/System of Meaning
A worldview is an encompassing picture of reality created and shared by members of a society. It’s a paradigm, a framework for understanding the world.
Paradigm Shift
A paradigm shift is a fundamental change in the way of thinking or doing something. It can be as profound as a religious conversion.
World View
A worldview includes assumptions about how the world works, criteria for evaluating truth, systems of meaning, practices, attitudes, rules, habits, and ideas about various aspects of life. It requires translation and interpretation to be understood by those outside of that worldview.
Comparing Worldviews
Comparing worldviews can be valuable for understanding different perspectives and challenging our own assumptions. For example, studying the Ilongot headhunters can lead us to question our own justifications for violence.
19th Century Evolutionary Ideas as a Paradigm
19th-century evolutionary thought created a dichotomy between “primitives” (associated with superstition and magic) and “moderns” (associated with science and rationality).
Science Compared
Scientific knowledge is also socially constructed and subject to paradigm shifts. We haven’t directly observed gravity, yet we accept it as a scientific fact.
Religion Compared
Religion can be defined as “ideas and practices that postulate reality beyond that available to the senses” or “a worldview in which cosmic forces interfere in life.” It encompasses various beliefs and practices related to spirits, ancestors, gods, and the supernatural.
Relativism
Relativism raises questions about whether we can judge different knowledge systems or worldviews as true or false. Can a non-believer truly understand a believer’s reality?
E-P on Azande
Evans-Pritchard argued that the Azande worldview, including witchcraft beliefs, formed a coherent system of thought that was difficult for outsiders to fully grasp.
Functions of Religion
Religion can explain contingency and misfortune. For the Azande, witchcraft provides a rational explanation for why bad things happen to specific individuals. Religion can also promote solidarity, social integration, and conformity.
Assumptions
The Azande worldview assumes that misfortune is caused by human ill will, leading them to seek answers through oracles and witchcraft accusations. This worldview is sociocentric, focusing on social relations as the cause of events.
All World Views
All worldviews, whether religious or secular, can promote solidarity, exclude deviants, stabilize meanings, manage counter-evidence, and legitimize power. Anthropology focuses on how these functions are achieved through practices and their effects.
Are World Views Ever Total?
Worldviews can be disputed, adapted, blended, or even held simultaneously with incompatible views. They can also become totalizing, interpreting everything through a single lens. Contemporary politics can be seen as an example of different, sometimes incompatible, worldviews clashing.
Chapter 6:
1. Summarize the various definitions of culture.
Culture has been defined in various ways, including:
- Edward Burnett Tylor: Culture as a complex whole encompassing knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of society.
- Terre Satterfield: Culture as a multifaceted resource that individuals draw upon, a collection of ideas, behaviors, and beliefs that inform their lives.
- Ruth Benedict: Culture as a system of patterns and configurations, similar to language, where elements are meaningfully related to one another.
2. Explain how autism spectrum disorder might lead Temple Grandin to feel like an “anthropologist on Mars.”
People with ASD may experience difficulties understanding social cues and nuances, leading them to feel like outsiders observing human behavior from a detached perspective, similar to an anthropologist studying an unfamiliar culture.
3. What did Mauss mean by bodily techniques and habitus?
Bodily techniques: The ways in which we perform everyday tasks, influenced by culture and habit (e.g., how we walk, eat, sleep, dance).
Habitus: Unconscious, culturally ingrained dispositions and habits that shape our actions and perceptions (e.g., etiquette, posture).
4. Explain how etiquette and “the gift” are related to Mauss’ concept of habitus.
Etiquette and the practice of gift-giving involve culturally specific, often unconscious, behaviors and norms that are part of our habitus. These practices demonstrate how culture shapes our actions and interactions.
5. Outline Benedict’s perspective on cultural patterns.
Benedict viewed cultures as patterned systems, where certain elements are selected and emphasized, similar to the way language selects and combines phonemes. She believed that studying so-called primitive societies could reveal the diversity of human institutions and cultural patterns.
6. Explain how our understanding of language can be used to understand culture.
Language, like culture, is a system of meaning where elements are combined and interpreted within a specific context. Understanding the structure and function of language can provide insights into how culture operates as a system of meaning.
7. Summarize Evans-Pritchard’s findings on Zande witchcraft and oracles.
Evans-Pritchard found that Zande witchcraft beliefs provided a rational explanation for misfortune within their sociocentric worldview. Oracles were used to identify the source of witchcraft accusations. This system functioned to maintain social order and explain unfortunate events.
8. Outline Durkheim’s study of religious practice.
Durkheim focused on religious practice rather than belief, emphasizing the social function of religion in creating solidarity and a sense of collective effervescence. He studied totemism among Aboriginal Australians, arguing that religious rituals reinforced social bonds and created a sense of the sacred.
Mana: A supernatural force or power that inheres in certain objects or individuals.
9. How did Luhrmann’s study of American Evangelicals differ from other anthropological studies of religion?
Luhrmann immersed herself in the Evangelical community, focusing on the subjective experiences of believers and how they cultivated a relationship with God through prayer and other practices. This approach differed from the more detached, observational methods of Evans-Pritchard and Durkheim.