Islam, Feudalism, Catholic Monarchs, Romanesque & Gothic Art
Islam
Muhammad, Founder of Islam
Arabia, a large peninsula in Asia between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, was inhabited by tribes often in conflict. Each tribe had its own polytheistic beliefs, with Mecca as their holy city. Muhammad, a merchant from Mecca, learned about Judaism and Christianity. He heard the call of God and preached Islam, teaching that people should worship Allah, the Muslim name for their only God. The wealthy merchants of Mecca saw him as a threat, leading him to move to Medina in 622, known as the Hegira, marking the start of the Muslim calendar. Muhammad formed a powerful army and conquered Mecca in 628, spreading Islam throughout Arabia.
Islamic Religion
The Quran is the sacred book of Muslims. Islamic doctrine dictates five obligations, known as the five pillars of faith:
- Shahadah: Testifying that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.
- Salah: Praying five times a day.
- Hajj: Making a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, if possible.
- Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramadan.
- Zakah: Giving alms to the poor.
Feudalism
Origin of Feudalism
After the Carolingian Empire, Europe fragmented into kingdoms with weak kings unable to protect their lands. Peasants turned to nobles for protection, who had armies and castles. In exchange, peasants worked for nobles and became serfs.
Feudalism: A New Social System
Under feudalism, nobles controlled their lands, limiting the king’s power to his direct holdings. Barons governed in the king’s name for a fief or manor, becoming vassals through homage and allegiance, promising troops and governance. Lower-ranking nobles also became vassals, forming a chain of personal ties. Frequent wars occurred between kings and nobles or among nobles.
Powers of the King and Court
The king’s power was limited under feudalism. The court, comprising lawyers, clergy, and soldiers, advised the king but mainly affected his lands. The king’s army was small, relying on vassals’ armies. His income came from fiefs and towns, unable to tax vassals’ lands. The Church and nobles provided aid in special circumstances.
Catholic Monarchs (Their Rule)
Domestic Policies
Ferdinand and Isabella established the Holy Brotherhood, a police force, to restore peace after the War of Succession in Castile. They reorganized justice, strengthening the Royal Council. They appointed corregidores to assert royal authority in towns, strengthened the treasury, and created a professional army.
Territorial Expansion
The Catholic Monarchs conquered Granada, annexed Navarre in 1512, and Naples in 1504. They captured Melilla and Oran in North Africa, the Canary Islands, and began the conquest of the Americas.
Religious Unity
Seeking religious unification, they established the Inquisition in 1478 to persecute heretics. Jews were forced to convert or leave, with around 80,000 departing. Conversos were persecuted. In 1512, Muslims were forced to convert or leave, with converts called Moriscos.
Romanesque Art
Romanesque
From the 11th century, Romanesque art spread across Western Europe, reminiscent of Roman art, aiming to spread religion. Churches, cathedrals, and monasteries were key buildings. Sculpture and painting conveyed spirituality using symbols. Artists were mostly anonymous craftsmen.
Romanesque Architecture
Romanesque buildings were stone, initially with flat roofs, later using barrel vaults and domes. They featured round arches, thick walls, small windows, and a solid appearance. Churches were cruciform, typically with a Latin cross layout.
Romanesque Sculpture
Sculptures served educational and religious purposes, adapted to fit spaces, with unrealistic human figures painted in bright colors. Facades, especially tympanums, depicted biblical scenes. Capitals and cloisters featured animals, plants, and everyday scenes. Wooden carvings often showed the Virgin and Child or Christ on the Cross.
Romanesque Painting
Paintings inside churches featured rigid, schematic figures with emphasized eyes and hands, using bright colors without background landscapes. Mural painting was common in apses, panel painting on altars, and miniatures in manuscripts.
Gothic Art
Gothic Sculpture
Originating in France, Gothic sculpture became more realistic and independent from architecture, showing emotions and movement. Stone and wood were used for altarpieces and choir stalls. Capitals featured plants, and tombs included portraits. Gargoyles adorned cathedral exteriors.
Gothic Painting
Mural painting declined, replaced by stained glass windows and miniatures. Later, wood panel paintings became popular, including portraits. Features included bright colors, gold, landscapes, realism, and movement.
Gothic Architecture
Cathedrals symbolized city power and wealth, serving as religious and civic centers. Cities competed to build the largest cathedrals.
New Techniques
Gothic cathedrals used pointed arches, rib vaults, and flying buttresses, allowing for large stained glass windows and rose windows, creating high, light-filled spaces. Greek cross vs. Latin cross: Greek cross (+), Latin cross (L.C.)