Islamic Spain: From the Valiato to Muslim Justice
The Islamic State of Al-Andalus
In Spain, there were several stages: the Valiato, Emirate, Caliphate, and Taifa Kingdoms.
The Valiato
The invasion of Spain was caused by the support of the Jews and some related Witiza Visigoths. The number of people entering the Valiato was great until 756. The supreme leader was the Wali, who may have numbered 22 or 23. The Wali was appointed by the previous Wali, the governor of North Africa, or the Caliph of Damascus. It was a product of choice within the army, and there were some attempts to gain independence from Damascus. Abd Al-Aziz was appointed by Musa and married Egilona (the widow of Don Rodrigo). Abd took Egilona’s crown, as the only king is Allah. The Wali led all aspects of government and was the army chief. The Wali did not consult anyone during their conquests. The first capital of the Valiato was Seville, then moved to Cordova. The main feature of the Valiato was instability.
The Emirate
From 756 to 929, the Emirate was independent in politics but not in religion, religiously accepted as approved in the East. During the Emirate, the Umayyad family consolidated power, and there was a refinement of the traditional Syrian administrative system.
The Caliphate
From 930, the Caliphate had difficulty being recognized, as there could only be one Caliph in the Muslim world. Therefore, it solved the delegation theorists by applying full power. The Caliphate of Abd al-Rahman III recognized the cultural superiority of the East and the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Caliph was not a king, as Allah is the only king, but the Caliph had absolute power. Legally, there were several schools within Islam, but during the Caliphate, the Malequita School dominated. They had central government agencies, and the court was surrounded by great solemnity. The Caliph directed foreign policy, the administration of the public estate, and at times, Caliphs were very close to public affairs. Collaborators included the Hajib, a chief magistrate who replaced the Caliph in some cases, and the Foreign Ministry, where documents were issued by the Katib. The Katib required a high culture, rhetoric, and knowledge of the Koran. The bureaucracy reached its peak with Al-Hakam II. Mail services, custodians of the roads, officials, and tax collectors were also part of the administration. The Vizier occupied the second place after the Hajib and enjoyed a greater allowance than other officials. Rahman III attached the title of Vizier to the Hajib. There was also a secretary of the Foreign Ministry in charge of official correspondence.
The Taifa Kingdoms
The Taifa kingdoms emerged after the fall of the Caliphate in 1031. These were simple Emirates, political units with autonomy after the breakup of the Caliphate. Some survived until 1115. The reasons for their appearance were enmity, intrigue, a lack of brotherhood, political breakdown, disputes within the Caliphate, and a divisive attitude planted by the Christian kingdoms.
Al-Andalus broke apart, and popular reactions occurred, including military intrigue and a lack of unity. Emerging families wanted to control power. These Emirs of the Taifas were awarded pompous titles of Caliphs. There were separate Andalusian and Berber Taifas, spread throughout the country, some even at sea.
Some of the most expansive Taifas were Seville, Toledo, Valencia, Zaragoza, Denia, and Granada. Christian kings took advantage of the Taifas, agreeing with some against others and providing economic protection for a high tax. El Cid also had links with the Taifas. The Taifas were economically strangled by the Christian kingdoms, who taxed citizens almost 40%.
Some Taifas, like Seville, lost territories. The Taifas were important because they promoted culture, characterized by philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, botany, medicine, lexicography, and agronomy.
They also developed a special art, not only in architecture but also in gemology. The Almoravids and Almohads ended the disintegration and rejoined the remnants of Al-Andalus.
Muslim Justice
Muslim justice, the function of administering justice throughout Islam, was an attribution of the prince, who was the judge of the community of believers. The prince delegated his judicial function to the Cadi, who judged on his behalf. Cordoba had a Cadi who was the supreme judge of the Muslim community in Spain. The Cadi had civil and criminal jurisdiction, judged under the law contained in the Koran and Fiqh, the science of law. The Cadi attended to matters such as family law, marriage, divorce, probate litigation, disability claims, and property management. There was also the Hakim, an associate judge, and the Mussaddid, a lower judge. The Sahib Al-Mazalim was the judge for cases brought before the complaints filed by individuals. The court was simple, with the Cadi sitting on cushions with legs crossed, surrounded by directors and a Katib acting as a notary. Each litigant presented their case, and witnesses were presented by the parties. These witnesses had to be persons of high moral solvency.
Muslim Finance
Hacienda Muslim
The origin of Muslim finance is in the charity recommended by the prophet. Alms were concentrated in the hands of the authority, and then transformed into taxation. The Caliphs were given the fifth born of war and taxation. Public finance included canonical and noncanonical taxes.
Canonical Taxes
There were three types of Zakat: currency, land, and livestock. If a person had more than 20 linares, they had to pay 2.5%. The land tax was paid in kind and was about a tenth of the land. The livestock tax applied different criteria for camels, cows, goats, and sheep. These taxes were usually paid annually. The fifth was the fifth part of the acquisition of certain assets or spoils of war. The protection tax was paid by Christians and Jews living in Muslim lands. Part of the protection tax was for personal protection, and part was for land. There were also other canonical taxes arising from convictions for property confiscated from those sentenced to death for apostasy.
Noncanonical Taxes
Noncanonical tributes lacked a formal basis. The most characteristic was the tithe of goods brought into Muslim territory by foreign merchants. There were also indirect taxes on various consumer goods. The Zakat al-Fitr was a charity consisting of a certain amount every Muslim possessed. Alcafaras were alms that substituted certain trends. Spending was devoted to charitable causes, holy war, and administrative costs. There were officers, payment of hosts, legal fees, court costs, public works, mail, education, and health. The financial administration was carried out by the Diwan, an administrative agency distributed by sections or departments. The first was the Census and Statistics, which managed the salaries of the military. Finance managed revenues of the provinces. The personal section collected taxes, and the Administration of the territories was directly under the Caliph.