Italian and Dutch Baroque Painting
Italian Baroque Painting
1. Chronology
Beginning in the late 16th century and extending through the early 18th century, Italian Baroque painting flourished. Rome was initially the most important center, followed by Bologna and later Venice. All Baroque painters eventually gravitated towards Rome, where the dominant trend was naturalism, representing reality without idealizing filters. In Bologna, painters drew inspiration from classical antiquity. By the 18th century, Venice became the major center of Italian painting, with artists focusing on urban landscapes. Naples also exerted considerable influence, with Caravaggio as its most outstanding painter.
2. Power and Art
Baroque art can be seen as an art of power. The apparent luxury of this period conveyed a simple message: luxury symbolized power, and power guaranteed truth. The absolute power of monarchies was considered a divine right, unquestionable. Religious themes were prevalent, reflecting the contemporary context. With its tendency towards realism, Baroque art was more direct and easier to interpret, employing theatricality to enhance popular fervor.
3. Characteristics
- Predominance of color over drawing: Creating a sense of unity.
- Contrasting light: Tenebrism, the dramatic use of light and shadow, reached its peak.
- Mastery of aerial perspective: Representing the atmosphere surrounding objects.
- Predominance of asymmetrical compositions: Dynamic and engaging arrangements.
- Naturalist realism: Using everyday people as models for sacred subjects and period clothing for historical themes.
- Focus on movement: Capturing dynamic moments within the artwork.
- Oil and canvas: The dominant techniques.
4. Iconography
Diverse iconography, predominantly religious and mythological themes, alongside still lifes.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1573-1610)
The most important painter of tenebrism, Caravaggio, was born in 1573. Wayward and irritable, he left home for Milan as a youth. He later spent time in Venice and arrived in Rome in 1589, joining the workshop of Cavalier d’Arpino. Under the protection of Cardinal del Monte, he received several commissions, but his volatile character led to problems, forcing him to flee to Genoa. He returned to Rome but had to escape again, first to Naples, then Malta, Sicily, and back to Naples. He died abandoned and suffering from malaria in Porto Ercole in 1610, at the age of 36. His early work, up to 1597, displays clarity and chromatic transparency (e.g., “Rest on the Flight into Egypt”). From 1597, he embraced tenebrism, using a single light source outside the canvas to highlight the main subject. His realism challenged traditional painting, resulting in dramatic and sometimes violent scenes that scandalized some religious figures. His realism is evident in the San Mateo cycle and “Death of the Virgin” (1606), for which he used a drowned woman as a model. His work often features scenes from daily life and still lifes.
Dutch Baroque Painting
The Dutch landscape, largely defined by its proximity to the sea, features flat terrain, cloudy skies, and a strong Calvinist influence. Calvinism rejected ornamentation and images, leading to a decline in religious patronage. Dutch artists turned to portraiture and family scenes, reflecting the bourgeois society of merchants and seafarers. They favored color, applying loose brushstrokes and focusing on light. Interior scenes conveyed a sense of harmony between people and their living spaces.
Genres
- Landscapes: Recognizable for their low horizon lines, light filtering through clouds, and reflections in water. Notable artists include Jacob van Ruisdael and Meindert Hobbema.
- Still Lifes: A blend of Flemish and Spanish styles, capturing the textures and details of food and tableware. Notable artists include Pieter Claesz and Willem Claeszoon Heda.
- Portraits: Group portraits (doelen) gained popularity, reaching their peak with Rembrandt van Rijn, though Frans Hals also made significant contributions.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
The most important painter of the Dutch Baroque school, Rembrandt was born in Leiden. After his studies, he moved to Amsterdam and married Saskia. Saskia’s death and his relationship with Hendrikje Stoffels, whom he couldn’t marry due to Saskia’s will, led to social ostracism and financial ruin. His career can be divided into two stages: before 1642 (Saskia’s death) and after. “The Night Watch” (1642) caused controversy as it didn’t give equal prominence to all figures. After 1642, his life and work entered a period of crisis. He stopped representing beauty and embraced a magnificent misery, using reddish hues to highlight figures within their environment. His work during this period was partly due to the support of Hendrikje Stoffels. He favored portraits, religious themes imbued with deep emotion (e.g., “The Descent from the Cross”), and landscapes, particularly winter scenes. Mythological subjects held less appeal. He was a master of color and light, applying thick impasto to create a textured surface. His use of light was poetic rather than optical. He was also a renowned etcher.