Italian & German Unification: A Comparative Overview
Italian Unification
The Divided Peninsula
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna divided Italy into eight states. Austria controlled much of the north, including Lombardy-Venetia. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with its burgeoning industries and influential bourgeoisie, emerged as a key player. This region, along with Savoy, had abandoned absolutism. Central Italy comprised four duchies (Parma, Modena, Lucca, and Tuscany) essentially satellite states of Austria. The Papal States, governed by the Pope, resisted liberal ideas. In the south, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily) remained under the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons.
Economic and Political Landscape
Southern Italy’s economy was largely agrarian, with land concentrated in the hands of the nobility. This feudal system resulted in low agricultural yields and widespread poverty among the peasantry. In contrast, northern Italy experienced agricultural transformation and early industrial development, fueled by progressive legislation and a unified market. The northern bourgeoisie saw unification as a means to further their economic interests. The construction of railroads from the 1840s facilitated trade and the spread of nationalist ideas.
The Path to Unification
Two opposing projects emerged among Italian nationalists. The first, led by Prime Minister Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia, aimed for a monarchy that would benefit Piedmont and its bourgeoisie. The second, a republican-democratic movement led by Garibaldi, sought to end the Bourbon monarchy in the south. Cavour secured French aid to defeat Austria in Lombardy, ceding Savoy and Nice to France in return. The four central duchies subsequently joined Piedmont and Lombardy. Garibaldi, with his 1,250 “Red Shirts,” landed in Sicily, overthrew the Bourbon government, and established a provisional democratic government. He then marched north, eventually uniting with the Piedmontese forces. In 1870, Rome was captured, completing the unification process. The first Italian parliament convened in Turin, proclaiming the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II, with Rome as its capital.
German Unification
Post-Vienna Fragmentation
After the Congress of Vienna, Germany remained fragmented into over 30 states, many under Austrian influence, forming the German Confederation. This confederation had a diet (parliament) in Frankfurt, largely dominated by Austria and Prussia.
Economic and Political Consolidation
The first step towards unification was economic. Prussia spearheaded the creation of a customs union (Zollverein), excluding Austria, which fostered industrialization and economic growth. This led to the rise of a powerful industrial bourgeoisie who supported national unity. The Frankfurt Parliament proclaimed a constitution and offered the crown to the Prussian king, who refused. This led to the dissolution of the parliament and the emergence of new, democratically elected state parliaments. Prussia, with its strong industry and army, consolidated its leadership within the confederation.
Bismarck’s Role and the Wars of Unification
In 1862, Otto von Bismarck became Chancellor of Prussia. Believing war was the path to unity, he orchestrated three wars. The first, against Denmark, resulted in the annexation of two duchies. The second, against Austria, dissolved the German Confederation and created the North German Confederation, uniting 23 German states. The third, against France, led to the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. In 1871, Bismarck proclaimed the Second German Empire (Reich) at Versailles, with Prussian King William I as Emperor. This new empire forcibly incorporated Danish, Polish, and French populations, but excluded Austria, preventing the creation of a “Greater Germany” encompassing all German-speaking peoples.