Italy and Germany: 19th-Century Unification
Italy and Germany: A Tale of Two Unifications
In the mid-nineteenth century, the unification of Italy and Germany shared a series of similarities. The unification was led by the most developed territory of each country. Both were achieved after intense armed conflicts.
The bourgeoisie was the leading class of the new states. To ensure its dominance, it had agreed with the old privileged groups, and this gave a conservative character to the liberalism of these countries, particularly in Germany.
Italy
Italy was divided into six states. The Pope was sovereign in one of them, Rome. Austria annexed Lombardy and Veneto, rich regions of northern Italy. Piedmont, headed by the Savoy dynasty, a monarchy with liberal leanings, manifested in favor of the unification of all Italy.
In 1859, Cavour, in the government of the Piedmont region, started a war against Austria and won the annexation of Lombardy. A popular uprising led by Garibaldi overthrew the monarchies of the central and southern states of Italy.
In 1861, the first Italian parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy. The Austrians left Veneto in 1866, and in 1870, the Papal States were annexed. Rome became the capital of the new kingdom.
Germany
Germany was divided into 36 states. The main problem for their unity was the rivalry between the two Germanic powers, Prussia and Austria. Prussia led the unification, strengthening a customs union that included the German states, with the exception of Austria.
European nationalism was evident in the revolutions of 1848, when a parliament met in Frankfurt and offered the crown of a united Germany to the King of Prussia. He did not accept it because the offer came from a liberal parliament.
Prussia chose the path of war to achieve German unification.
The Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck led victorious wars, one against Austria in 1866 and one against France in 1870, which allowed him to unite all the states under the scepter of the King of Prussia. After the victory of Sedan, the Second German Empire was proclaimed, and William I was proclaimed emperor.
Europe at the End of the 19th Century
It seemed that political stability had been achieved, but a series of conflicts continued. The Austro-Hungarian and Turkish Empires remained absolutist regimes, and serious national problems persisted. Under their borders, there were still people who aspired to independence: in Austria, the Hungarians, Czechs, and Poles; in Turkey, the Serbs, Croats, and Bulgarians.
In Western Europe, the main objectives of the political struggle were the advancement of democracy, that is, the conquest of political equality with the right to universal suffrage, the expansion of individual and collective freedoms, and the recognition of social rights for the entire population.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was the result of joint economic and technological changes that occurred first in Britain and resulted in a transformation of the economy and society.
The Demographic Revolution
Since the mid-18th century, the European population began a process of growth. The population went from 140 million inhabitants in 1750 to 180 million in 1800 and 266 million in 1850. This growth was greater and faster in Britain, where it doubled.
The causes were the increased production of food and, to a lesser extent, the progress of medicine and hygiene. There was a decrease in mortality and a slight increase in the birth rate.