Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Philosophy, Society, and Politics
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Historical and Sociocultural Framework
The 18th century saw the maintenance of old economic, political, and social structures, but these structures would suffer progressive damage, culminating in the American and French Revolutions. Resistance to servitude persisted in largely peasant Europe, but new agricultural and industrial techniques brought socioeconomic changes. Artisan workshops and guilds also persisted. This was the century of Enlightened Despotism, where absolute monarchies were influenced by the Enlightenment. Society remained stratified, with limited mobility despite the enrichment of the bourgeoisie. It was also a time of great musicians like Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.
Philosophical Framework
Philosophy left the universities and entered social life, flourishing in meeting rooms and taverns. This philosophy aimed to be useful for social change and often had a vindictive spirit, concerned with the problems of humanity and society. It is called social and political philosophy. It fought against class privilege for ethical and social regeneration and had an educational eagerness. Enlightenment anthropology emerged, emphasizing humanity as a free citizen and the importance of human rights.
Rousseau’s Thought
- Negative consideration of culture and civilization.
- Positive reflection on government and policy (the idea of the General Will).
- There is no contradiction between these two premises. His purpose is to promote a new social and political model, starting from a critique of the civilization that has fostered inequality (private property) and moral degeneration (despotic power).
- Conclusion: It is impossible to return to the original state of humanity but necessary to reform society and end the causes of corruption.
Anthropology
- In the original natural state, human feelings prevail:
- Self-love or the instinct for self-preservation (not to be confused with selfishness).
- Sympathy towards fellow human beings.
- Human beings are instinctively moved but have freedom of choice and the possibility of improvement (acquiring new skills).
Morality
- Humans in the natural state know neither vice nor virtue; they are not moral.
- It is a state of peace because of:
- Mercy for the suffering of others.
- Lack of passions (of possession).
- Absence of inequalities resulting from wealth or power.
- Evolution: Natural disasters and hazards lead humans to seek support in others. Nomadic life gives way to a sedentary lifestyle (agriculture and pasture). Differences and inequalities emerge, leading to greed, envy, etc. (due to property). Insecurity arises, necessitating a covenant (the origin of the state) between the rich and the poor.
Conclusion: Rousseau believes this pact, in fact, only guarantees the power of the owners, who also wield political power. He attaches great importance to the education of new generations, modeled after the natural human. Moral education aims to develop a natural awareness to distinguish good from evil and serve the common good. Although the author does not intend to return to a state of nature, he believes that laying the groundwork for a legitimate society that limits inequalities will bring justice and happiness to citizens.
The Social Contract (Politics)
- Proposes a new social order to build a society according to true human nature and freedom:
- Without economic inequalities.
- Without despotism.
- The state is necessary but only has legitimacy if it can restore the freedom and equality of the state of nature.
- Concept of the Social Contract: The General Will is an agreement that unites free wills. It constitutes the General Will:
- Emanates directly from the people.
- Is identified with the common interest, benefiting all.
- Provides true freedom (giving up individual rights for the benefit of the community and the general interest).
- Rousseau does not accept representative democracy or the division of powers.
- Among the rights of citizens, he does not agree with the right to private property (as it leads to inequalities).