John Locke: Empiricism and Political Liberalism
Locke’s philosophy must be understood in the context of the Enlightenment movement, which he helped initiate in England. His empiricism leads to a moderate skepticism about the nature of things, advocating for intellectual tolerance. His political liberalism proposes that society should be organized through a social pact or contract to respect individual rights.
Locke’s Theory of Ideas
Locke famously stated, “There is nothing in the human mind that has not been received by the senses.” This highlights his core belief that we have no innate ideas. He used the term ‘idea’ to refer to ‘mental content,’ not an external reality like Plato.
According to Locke, the origin of ideas is experience, which can be either:
- External (simple ideas of sensation): These originate in our mind from sensory experience.
- Internal (simple ideas of reflection): These originate in our mind from our internal perceptions (such as pain or other emotions) and acts of will.
Complex ideas are formed by our minds by combining simple ideas or relationships. Locke identified three types of complex ideas:
- Relationships: Ideas formed from connections between simple ideas (e.g., parenting).
- Modes: States, properties, or conditions of things we perceive or feel (e.g., color).
- Substances: Ideas that the mind forms from the experience of various sensations that occur together. The mind infers a substrate, which is not directly observable, called substance (e.g., any perceived reality).
Types of Substances
Locke identified three types of substances:
- The idea of extended substance or the world: Our knowledge of the sensory world.
- The idea of thinking substance or the Self: The intuitive knowledge of one’s own existence.
- The idea of infinite substance or God: Knowledge of God’s existence is demonstrative, according to Locke.
Although Locke believed we know of the existence of these substances, he maintained that we cannot know their true nature. Our knowledge, therefore, remains probable rather than certain.
Locke’s Political Philosophy
Locke argued that in the state of nature, all individuals are equal and free. The law governing this state is natural law, inscribed in human nature by God, granting everyone the rights to life, property, and liberty.
He quoted, “Whoever sheds the blood of a man is subject to having another man spill his.” To protect these rights, individuals agree to form a political society through a social contract.
This contract subjects individuals to:
- A legislative power to establish and promulgate laws.
- An executive power responsible for enforcing the law and punishing offenders.
Crucially, the people retain the power to revoke the authority granted and dissolve the legislature if it threatens the life, property, or liberty of the subjects.
The Liberal State
The type of state arising from this social contract is the Liberal State. The power to legislate can be delegated to:
- An assembly elected by citizens.
- A monarch.
- An oligarchy (a small group of people).
The executive branch must include fair and impartial judges who are subject to the rule of law. Locke also conceived a third type of power, federative power, responsible for defending the state against external threats. Locke’s ideas were a precursor to modern liberal democracy.