John Locke: Empiricism, Philosophy, and Political Thought
John Locke: Empiricism and Political Thought
Context
John Locke, a foundational figure in empiricism, lived during a period of political transformation in 17th-century England. This era witnessed the first modern political revolution, a union of the bourgeoisie and nobility against the absolutism of the Stuart dynasty. This liberal revolution resulted in a parliamentary monarchy where the king, House of Commons, and House of Lords shared power.
Born during the reign of Charles I, Locke experienced a time of initial stability, which later deteriorated due to parliamentary resistance against increased taxes for war and religious disputes between Arminianism and Calvinism. Tensions escalated, leading to the English Civil War in 1642.
The Civil War saw two factions: royalists and parliamentarians. Society divided along religious lines, with Puritans supporting Parliament and Catholics and Arminians siding with the King. The war ended with the defeat and execution of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell established a republic, transforming England into a naval power and promoting religious tolerance. After Cromwell’s death, Charles II restored the monarchy, negotiating agreements with Puritan leaders that included religious freedom and parliamentary lawmaking.
However, Charles II’s poor economic management and leanings towards absolutism led to conflicts with Parliament. His successor, James II, a Catholic, faced opposition from both Tories (conservative absolutists) and Whigs (liberal parliamentarians). The arrival of William of Orange, a Protestant, led to James II’s exile and the Glorious Revolution, marking a transition to a parliamentary monarchy and the triumph of liberal ideas.
Socio-Cultural Landscape
The early 17th century in England was marked by a widespread crisis affecting population, industry, and trade. Unfair taxes exacerbated famine, wars, and epidemics. Eventually, this crisis was overcome, fueling the development of capitalism and establishing England as a major European power. Rivalry with France led to protectionist policies and the rise of commercial monopolies.
Socially, the rise of bankers and cooperation between the bourgeoisie and aristocracy spurred economic development. However, this growth primarily benefited the upper classes, leading to social unrest. Agricultural improvements, including enclosure policies, increased production and trade.
Culturally, figures like John Milton, painters Van Dyck and Rubens, and scientists like Hooke, Newton, and Halley emerged.
Philosophical Context
Scholastic philosophy declined, giving way to a mechanistic worldview supported by rationalist philosophers and advancements in physics based on empirical observation. Empiricism, championed by Locke, Hume, and Berkeley, coexisted with rationalism (Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz) and Hobbes’ political theories. This period emphasized the rational nature of man and God’s supreme power, fostering greater religious tolerance.
Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Locke’s Essay explores knowledge as a means to guide human conduct. He refutes innate ideas, arguing that logical principles and moral standards vary across time and cultures. He posits that ideas, the content of our minds, originate from experience.
Thought: Theory of Knowledge
Locke believed that simple ideas arise from sensation (qualities of external objects) or reflection (subjective states of consciousness). Complex ideas are combinations of simple ideas. He categorizes ideas as:
- Simple Ideas: Derived from sensation (primary and secondary qualities) or reflection (mental events).
- Complex Ideas: Combinations of simple ideas, including modes (qualities of substance), substances (sets of qualities), relations (comparisons between entities), and abstract ideas (universal concepts).
Locke rejects innate ideas, asserting that the mind is a “blank slate” at birth. He argues that all knowledge comes from experience, either sensation or reflection. He explains universal consent not through innate principles but through convention and natural tendencies.
Locke distinguishes three realities: self (known intuitively), God (known through demonstration), and bodies (known through sensation).
Philosophy of Language
Locke adopts a nominalist perspective on language, arguing that general words represent common features of individuals, not universal essences.
Political Theory
Locke argues that rulers’ authority derives from human agreement, not divine right. He describes a state of nature governed by natural law, emphasizing self-preservation. Unlike Hobbes, who viewed the state of nature as a war of all against all, Locke believed that natural law prevails. However, the introduction of private property and money creates inequalities, necessitating a social contract and positive laws.
Locke advocates for majority rule and separation of powers (legislative, executive, and federal) to prevent tyranny. He views humans as social by nature, endowed with natural rights (equality, liberty, and property), which are best protected through a social contract.
Idea of Tolerance
Locke champions religious tolerance and separation of church and state. He argues against religious imposition and advocates for equal rights for all, with limitations for atheists and Catholics. He also emphasizes the importance of not tolerating the intolerant.