John Locke: Foundations of Liberalism and Natural Rights
John Locke’s Political Philosophy
Early ideas from the Stoics, and later Scholasticism, developed the concept of natural law. Scholasticism, in particular, linked this to divine law or ‘Providence,’ suggesting everything occurred according to a divine design. This supported a hierarchical view of society, predominant in Europe, where roles (worker, defender, ruler) were seen as divinely ordained, and power derived from God. While Machiavelli had previously questioned the source of power, the 17th and 18th centuries—marked by the rise of England’s parliamentary monarchy, the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution—saw a widespread challenge to the divine origin of political authority.
Among the influential thinkers driving this change (including Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Hobbes, and Spinoza) stands John Locke (1632–1704), a key figure in liberalism and an early proponent of the separation of powers.
State of Nature and Natural Rights
Following naturalist traditions, Locke posited a state of nature where individuals exist under natural law. This law, derived from reason, dictates respect for others’ fundamental rights: life, liberty, and property. Locke argued that property is acquired through labor. In this state, individuals are free, equal, and generally respect each other. However, the state of nature has shortcomings that necessitate civil society.
The Social Contract and Civil Society
Reason guides morality, but an effective system is needed to administer justice and protect rights. To address the deficiencies of the state of nature, individuals enter into a social contract.
The Agreement
This is a mutual agreement:
- Citizens agree to obey the government and renounce their individual right to enforce the law.
- The ruler (or government) agrees to protect the citizens’ fundamental rights (life, liberty, property).
Crucially, this contract is not irreversible. If the ruler fails to uphold their end of the bargain and violates natural rights, the pact is dissolved, and citizens regain their original rights, potentially forming a new government.
Separation of Powers
Regarding the form of government, Locke believed the majority should decide whether power rests with one, a few, or the many. However, he favored a liberal state with a separation of powers to prevent tyranny:
- A Legislative Power: Vested in a democratically elected Parliament representing the people, responsible for making laws.
- An Executive Power: Wielded by the government, responsible for enforcing laws, and accountable to the Parliament.
Locke did not distinctly separate the judicial power from the legislature as later thinkers would. It was Montesquieu, about half a century later, who built upon Locke’s ideas to establish the clearer three-branch separation (legislative, executive, judicial) that became fundamental to modern constitutionalism.
Religious Tolerance
Religiously, Locke championed tolerance and anti-dogmatism. He argued for the separation of church and state, advocating for freedom of conscience—a groundbreaking idea that faced significant resistance from the religious and political establishments of his time.
Biography of John Locke
John Locke (1632–1704) was born in Wrington, Somerset, near Bristol, England. His upbringing during a time of political and religious turmoil influenced his thinking. Locke is renowned as:
- The father of modern empiricism (the theory that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience).
- A major precursor to the Enlightenment, notably through works like his Letter Concerning Toleration (1689).
His most influential political work, the Two Treatises of Government (published anonymously, likely written earlier but associated with the Glorious Revolution of 1688), provided a powerful justification for limiting monarchical power and establishing government based on the consent of the governed. It served as a cornerstone for liberal political thought and significantly influenced revolutions in America and France.