John Locke: Life, Philosophy, and Social Contract Theory

John Locke’s Biography

John Locke (1632-1704) was born in Wrington, near Bristol. Raised in a somewhat conservative environment, it influenced his education. He is considered the father of modern empiricism and a forerunner of the Enlightenment, notably through works like A Letter Concerning Toleration. Locke’s political work, especially his Two Treatises of Government, can be interpreted as a justification for the legitimacy of liberal shifts in power from the monarchy.

Philosophical Context

Locke is a key figure in social contract theories, which posit that society originates from an agreement or contract. In Locke’s time, there was a search for ways to legitimize government. The medieval theory of the divine right of kings asserted that God was the source of political authority, often intertwining English politics and theology. Sir Robert Filmer defended this theory in Patriarcha, published posthumously, arguing that men are not born free or independent and that all legitimate government must be an absolute monarchy. He rejected the idea of a social contract, equating royal authority with paternal authority, the king as the father of the country, even tracing the genealogy of kings back to Adam. Locke refuted this, arguing for the equality and freedom of individuals. He contended that even if Adam had natural authority over his children, it would be impossible to determine the legitimate heir to this power since all are children of God.

Iusnaturalism

Iusnaturalism asserts the existence of natural rights that precede positive law. Natural law comprises rules and principles based on human nature, valid across all times and places. Iusnaturalism is linked to modernity and does not depend on theology. It was used to address contemporary issues such as religious tolerance, colonization, trade, and social organization. Key figures in iusnaturalism include Locke, who distinguished between natural and positive law, Hobbes, Spinoza, and Rousseau. Hugo Grotius, in Mare Liberum, argued that natural law allows us to distinguish between morally good and bad based on rational and social nature. Civil law must be grounded in natural law, ensuring justice and rights within the community established by the social contract. Pufendorf, founder of a professorship in natural law, argued for its precedence over positive law and its existence prior to the state, affirming innate rights that exist before society. Grotius, Pufendorf, and Locke, unlike Hobbes, argued that property is a natural right, not merely a result of a pact.

Social Contract Theory

Social contract theory attempts to legitimize power based on a rational, hypothetical state of nature. Political society is justified by the agreement or contract of its members. This theory is central to the works of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.