John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism: Principles and Political Philosophy
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism
During the first half of the nineteenth century, a school of thought advocating moral positivism, known as utilitarianism, emerged in England. John Stuart Mill’s thought, influenced by liberalism and empiricism, reformulated the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham and his father, James Mill. Utilitarianism equates the absence of pain, satisfaction, and happiness with what is useful. Its political aim is the organization of society and the state under the principle of maximum happiness for the greatest number of people.
Utilitarian Approach
Utilitarians sought to renew successful social life, addressing the social imbalances resulting from the Industrial Revolution in England. Lawmakers were to create rules that would make as many people happy as possible. The basic principle of utilitarianism is that our conduct should be governed by what is useful, i.e., actions that promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Precedents to Mill’s Utilitarianism
- Epicurus’ Influence: His hedonism equates happiness with obtaining pleasure.
- Influence of Jeremy Bentham: A key figure in utilitarianism, Bentham also defended a wide range of freedoms, arguing that excessive control over people’s lives leads to unhappiness.
John Stuart Mill’s Contributions
Mill inherited influences from Bentham and empiricism, stating that everyone desires happiness, which he identified with pleasure. Mill also spoke of general happiness, asserting that everyone would desire it. He believed that happiness is not only individual but attainable by all. Mill equates the notion of the common good with the sum of happiness for the greatest number of people, and the state should act accordingly. When individual happiness conflicts with general happiness, one should always act in favor of the general good. Happiness is generally a result of two motivations:
- External Motivation: Rewards and punishments applied through social pressures.
- Internal Motivation: A feeling of duty or moral conscience, leading to remorse if not followed.
Mill advocates a standard of utilitarianism that examines whether standards of conduct align with the pursuit of maximum happiness for the most people. He establishes a hierarchy of pleasures.
Political Philosophy
Mill’s political philosophy addresses the relationship between individual liberties and the legitimacy of social intervention. He distinguishes between:
- Inner Freedom: The internal capacity of each individual to decide how to act.
- Outer Social or Civil Liberty: The freedom of each individual in society to behave according to their personal criteria without obstacles.
Mill defends individual rights and liberties.
Limitations on Individual Liberties
Mill believes that society can interfere with conduct that seriously harms others, particularly concerning life, civil liberties, and social behavior. He emphasizes preserving the civil liberty of every individual, even when their behavior has negative consequences for themselves. Mill argues that people often persist in self-harming behavior. The following are limitations on individual liberty:
- Compulsory education
- Work beyond the prohibition of laws
The state can impose standards that promote happiness, but the maximum protection of individual freedom is paramount. The only justification for exercising power over a member of society against their will is to prevent harm to others, thus increasing overall happiness. Mill rejects economic naturalism, defending cooperatives and legislation that promotes production and limits inheritance to reduce economic disparities. He also argues that excessive control over individuals causes unhappiness.
Theory of Knowledge (Logic)
For Mill, logic is the theory of demonstration, examining how knowledge is obtained. Logic is instrumental but does not provide knowledge itself. Knowledge is based on experience, and there are no a priori or innate ideas. There are no absolutely necessary truths, only hypothetical ones.