José Ortega y Gasset: Philosophy and Influence
Influences
I. Spanish Intellectual Movements
The Generation of ’98 (mainly Unamuno, who maintained a cordial, yet controversial, relationship with Ortega due to Unamuno’s contempt for Europe and science) and the Regenerationist Movement. Ortega criticized the intellectual, social, and political life of Spain, believing it needed a radical overhaul incorporating philosophy into cultural life.
II. German Philosophy
In an effort to improve his country, Ortega studied philosophy in Germany, where he absorbed the ideas of Neo-Kantianism and later, phenomenology.
1. Objectivism (First Stage)
In Germany, he studied Kant’s philosophy, particularly with the Kantian scholar Cohen. From this, he assimilated the spirit of Neo-Kantian philosophy, finding it fruitful for his interests and for the future of Spain, which needed to overcome subjectivism and personalism and enter modernity. He believed the main focus should not be the subjective and individual, but the exercise of reason, which connects us to the objective, universal, and scientific realms of philosophy.
2. Perspectivism (Second Stage)
Ortega shifted his focus from a Europeanized Spain to a critique of European culture as a whole. His aim was not modernity, but overcoming modernity. He believed that at the root of modern Europe was rationalism and idealism, and since Europe was in crisis, the solution (and the solution to Spain’s problems) would be to transcend rationalism and idealism, without returning to earlier, insufficient philosophical forms like relativism and realism.
3. Nietzsche
Ortega always showed a special interest in Nietzsche’s thought, while avoiding the irrationalism and relativism characteristic of Nietzsche. He embraced the perspectival conception of truth and the defense of life, values, and non-strictly rational dimensions of the person.
4. Husserl’s Phenomenology
Ortega adopted the defense of intentionality as a major feature of psychic life. He also embraced the idea that fidelity to things themselves requires overcoming the empirical approach and accepting the intuitive understanding of non-physical entities, values, and mathematical objects. He shared Husserl’s concern for establishing philosophy on a firm, fundamental, and radical foundation, independent of other knowledge (religious, common sense, scientific). This aligns with Ortega’s principle of autonomy for phenomenology, that “ultimate reality” is consciousness and life.
5. Heidegger’s Phenomenology and Existentialism
Ortega’s thought has a clear affinity with Heidegger’s, particularly regarding the categories of life, which are very close to Heidegger’s analysis of human existence.
III. Sartre and Existentialism (Near, but Not Influence)
Ortega shared common ground with Sartre, particularly the idea that man has no nature or essence, but is continually being built through life choices. They also shared the description of the native state of human beings as “castaway” in existence, without a pre-written script, constantly having to choose and freely decide their own lives.
Effect
I. Importance in Spanish Philosophy
Ortega is considered the most important Spanish philosopher. His works have been translated into many languages and have inspired countless articles and books of interpretation.
II. Pre-Civil War Influence
Before the Spanish Civil War, Ortega was a major figure in Spanish cultural life through lectures, newspaper articles, university teaching, and publishing.
III. Political Commitment
Ortega opposed Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, resigned his university professorship after its end, co-founded the “Association to Serve the Republic” (1931), and was a deputy in the Constituent Assembly (1931). The outbreak of the Civil War in 1936 led to Ortega’s exile, first in Europe and later in South America. He returned to Spain in 1945 but did not resume his university position.
IV. Post-Civil War Influence
Despite being marginalized by the academic community after the Civil War, Ortega’s influence continued through his followers (Gaos, Marías – who founded the Institute of Humanities in 1948 – Ferrater Mora, Aranguren) and extended to Latin American thought.
V. Broad Intellectual Impact
Given Ortega’s diverse interests and fertile ideas, his influence extended beyond philosophy. He is considered a master of journalistic writing, influenced the Generation of ’27, and contributed to discussions on the novel, art, science, technology, and European unity.