Kant and Weber: Ethics in Politics and Morality
Kant: Morality, Freedom, and Reason
The Interplay of Morality and Freedom
Kant argues that the existence of morality is intrinsically linked to freedom. To justify the demands of morality, one must demonstrate the reality of freedom. Kant distinguishes between two uses of reason, with the practical use being the focus of his works, *Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals* and *Critique of Practical Reason*. Reason draws a clear line between duty and desire, morality and self-interest. Moral standards, aimed at free beings, must involve the capacity for autonomous action. These standards are grounded in practical reason.
Moral Autonomy and the Universal Law
For Kant, ethics comprises morality, happiness, and virtue. The purpose of morality is rooted in duty. Moral autonomy implies that the reason inherent in every human being brings forth the moral law. Every citizen is a co-legislator because they obey the laws they give themselves. Through reason and freedom, humans establish the moral law, which, in conjunction with others, forms the legal order. Freedom is the bedrock of both morality and law. Moral knowledge encompasses the understanding of the moral order that governs correct behavior.
The Moral Law and the State
The moral law obligates both individuals and states, albeit with recognition of the unique aspects of political ethics compared to individual ethics. In relation to politics, the goal of history is the establishment of a universal civil society where justice reigns. The state’s role is to facilitate the development of human nature as it ought to be. This is achieved by defining the limits of freedom: *my freedom ends where another’s begins*. This necessitates a just civil constitution through which freedom is regulated by external laws.
Weber: Empirical Data and Political Ethics
The Influence of Kantian Ethics
Weber, influenced by Kantian ethics, emphasized the importance of empirical data in political action, acknowledging that social reality cannot be ignored. He accepted that ethical behavior adheres to non-derogable and universally defined principles or moral standards. However, he noted that unwavering adherence to principles can be detrimental to a politician. The ethics of politics is not solely an ethics of principles, as reality often tests moral principles too rigorously.
Legitimacy and Ethical Requirements
The necessity of obedience to laws should be subject to certain ethical requirements. Citizens only feel obligated to obey legitimate laws. Legitimacy stems from the legislative procedure, which must be impartial and fair, and from the content of these laws, which must meet certain goals or principles. Political action must be subject to external conditions, which we term ethical. Political ethics is rooted in the needs of practical politics, and politics is a domain distinct from morality itself.
Ethics of Conviction vs. Ethics of Responsibility
The formal model based on Kantian duty aligns with personal moral life, whereas the political ethics of consequences requires a different model. Weber distinguishes between two types of ethics:
- Ethics of Conviction: Based on a moral obligation to principles, belonging to the intellectual realm, and grounded in indisputable rules.
- Ethics of Responsibility: Assesses the consequences of actions and means, considering various options or possibilities in a given situation. It evaluates the instruments used to achieve certain purposes and is proper to the political arena.
The application of the ethics of responsibility is crucial for achieving political success. This Weberian distinction represents the starting point of contemporary political ethics.