Kant: Philosophy in the German Enlightenment
Context: Kant and the German Enlightenment
Kant, a pivotal German philosopher of the eighteenth century, developed his philosophy within the German Enlightenment. While the Enlightenment is often associated with France (Voltaire, Rousseau, enlightened despotism, anticlericalism, atheism, and the French Revolution), it also flourished in England and Germany.
The English Enlightenment, while advocating for deism and natural religion (as seen in Locke), was less anticlerical. Kant, though a believer, argued that it was impossible to definitively prove the existence of God or the soul. His ideals aligned with enlightened thought and deism.
The German Enlightenment was characterized by a greater continuity with metaphysical thought. Leibniz’s ideas were further developed by Wolff, whose manuals were used throughout Germany. Kant himself was educated in this rationalist tradition, only deviating from it due to Hume’s influence. A defining characteristic of all Enlightenment thinkers was their belief in the power of reason and an optimistic faith in progress through reason and education.
Kant’s own slogan, “Sapere aude” (“Dare to know”), epitomizes the Enlightenment spirit. On a historical-political level, the most relevant event was the French Revolution, which Kant enthusiastically welcomed. The early Enlightenment period saw the decline of French absolutism and authoritarianism. The nobility gave way to the bourgeoisie, with the *philosophe* as a central figure. This intellectual activity occurred primarily in the salons of Paris, not in universities. Paris became the great center of the French Enlightenment.
In Germany, the situation was different. The German Enlightenment was more dispersed, with a significant center in Berlin. Frederick the Great founded the Academy of Sciences, directed by Maupertuis. Salons in the French style flourished, attracting figures like Mendelssohn, Lessing, Hegel, and Kant. Three periods can be distinguished within the German Enlightenment: Lessing’s, Kant’s, and the pre-Romantic period. The dominant scientific theory of the era was Newton’s, which Kant deeply admired.
Influences on Kant’s Philosophy
Kant’s philosophy was deeply imbued with Enlightenment ideals. It was marked by Newtonian physics. A central question he sought to answer was: “Is knowledge possible, and how are synthetic *a priori* judgments possible in physics?”. Kant was also interested in ethics, an interest sparked by Rousseau. Two things captivated Kant: the starry heavens above (Newton) and the moral law within (Rousseau).
His life was significantly impacted by:
- The outbreak of the French Revolution.
- Reading the works of Rousseau (*Emile* and *The Social Contract*).
- His confrontation with civil authorities over the second edition of *Religion within the Limits of Mere Reason*.
Kant was educated in the teachings of Wolff and Leibniz, but he also appreciated some aspects of empiricism and rejected certain pretensions of both empiricism and rationalism. Kantian apriorism acknowledges the limits of knowledge, as empiricism does. However, regarding the origin of knowledge and his stance on metaphysics, his position is mixed, occupying a middle ground between empiricism and rationalism.
In Kant’s view, ontology is related to transcendental realism, while epistemology is related to empirical idealism. His work represents a grand synthesis of empiricism and rationalism. Although he admired Newton, he did not solely rely on experience, but also believed in reason. He was also influenced by Galileo.
His two most important works, *Critique of Pure Reason* and *Critique of Practical Reason*, revolutionized the treatment of knowledge and ethics. His influence on modern philosophy is tremendous. He is one of the most important authors of all time. He influenced German Idealism (Fichte, Hegel), who regained a hyper-rationalist metaphysical approach. The most direct followers of Kant are the neo-Kantians of the Marburg School (Cohen, Natorp, Cassirer). Schopenhauer also shows Kant’s influence, as does the Frankfurt School (Habermas). Similarities can also be found between Kant’s position and that of authors like Popper or the later Wittgenstein.