Kant: Renaissance Science and the Scientific Revolution
Renaissance and Revolution (XV – XVII Century)
The Renaissance period is a bridge between the Middle Ages. The year 1453, when Constantinople fell, is considered the beginning, and 1600, the year of Giordano Bruno’s death, the end. Key features:
Change in Society: From Feudalism to Absolutism
The feudal system fell into crisis, with the nobility losing power. Kings administered through civil servants, centralizing power in the hands of the monarch, a system called absolutist monarchy. Absolutist monarchies were implemented by the State. The absolute political theory of the time defended the state, arguing that the monarch should acquire all power, not shared with other entities. The State is above all else, not subject to foreign states or the church. Unlike the Middle Ages, a distinction was made between religious and political power to avoid weakening the state and ensure stability. The main objective of the state was to ensure the peaceful coexistence of citizens, allowing them to conduct stable business.
Economy
When Constantinople fell in 1453, Mediterranean trade relations with the East were interrupted. Trade with the Americas began, and new routes of discovery were sought. The urban population increased, and incipient capitalism began to develop, shifting from a barter economy to one based on cash. This led to the creation of a middle class. Economic development spurred improvements in techniques, including advances in metallurgy, mapping, and the invention of printing.
Religion
The Church’s power weakened. The Catholic Church gradually lost influence due to the new scientific cosmology and the Reformation. In 1517, Luther denounced abuses, the Inquisition, and emphasized the individual’s direct relationship with God. The increasing power of kings and the dynamic middle class further undermined the Church.
Humanism and Anthropocentrism
Humanism emerged in the 14th century and developed in the 15th century, bringing new values and sensitivities to intellectual movements. Humanitas, at the end of the 14th century, emphasized grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. Logic suffered a decline as humanists felt it had been the sole tool for centuries, and the meaning of concepts needed to change.
Humanists revived Greek and Latin culture, studying classical texts written by ancient philosophers, rather than medieval theologians. Classical texts became the main reference, excluding mysticism. The Renaissance saw a shift from theocentric to anthropocentric views, influencing European culture. During the Middle Ages, life was focused on God and theology was the primary science. Anthropocentric culture includes:
- Knowledge of nature and the purpose of man.
- Reason as the source of knowledge, rejecting revelation.
- Human reason as the basis for power and politics.
- The desire to investigate and control nature.
The Scientific Revolution and the Invention of the Scientific Method
The Scientific Revolution began with astronomy, particularly with Nicholas Copernicus’s heliocentric theory in 1543. This theory faced obstacles from sensory data, physics, and the Church. Key figures in overcoming these obstacles were Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, the protagonists of the Scientific Revolution.