Kantian Ethics and Aristotle’s Hylomorphism
Kantian Moral Imperative
Actions under duty and obligation: To describe an action as moral, it must fulfill conditions for moral distinction. Kant established two types of actions:
- In accordance to duty: Actions that conform to the norm for reasons related to moral consequences, making the imperative hypothetical.
- On duty: Actions that meet the standard solely because of the duty to comply.
Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Moral law distinguishes between the content (what the law says) and the form (how the law is made). Acting morally means being moved by pure duty, not just the content. Kant’s imperative: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Treat humanity, in yourself and others, always as an end and never merely as a means.
Dignity and the Kingdom of Ends
Kantian ethics focuses on how we should act, regardless of purpose. However, its implementation should lead to a community where individuals are treated as ends in themselves, creating a “kingdom of ends.” Human dignity lies in being an end, not a means.
Ethical Materials and Formal Ethics
Kant’s ethics is a formal ethics, unlike previous material ethics.
- Material Ethics: Start with goods like happiness or pleasure, determining the best ones and the means to achieve them. They are empirical, with hypothetical precepts, and are not universally valid. They are heteronomous, as reason depends on experience.
- Formal Ethics: Focus on the form of the law, not just the content. Kant’s formal ethics has a priori precepts, independent of experience, making them universal and categorical. They are autonomous, as reason guides itself independently of experience.
Hylomorphism
Aristotle rejected Plato’s theory of ideas but maintained that universals have reality within the physical world. Hylomorphism posits that all physical things are composed of matter and form.
- Raw Material: An undetermined substrate, eternal, and the basis of all things. It is pure potentiality and the principle of individuation.
- Substantial Form: The essence that makes a thing what it is, akin to Plato’s ideas but inherent in the things themselves.
The Problem of Universals
The debate centers on whether universals have extra-mental reality. Boethius considered universals real but not separate from individuals, only considered separately in thought.
- Realism: Universals exist in extra-mental reality (Boethius, William of Champeaux).
- Nominalism: Universals are merely names (Ockham, Peter Abelard).
Relationship Between Sensible and Intelligible Worlds
Plato’s theories on the relationship:
- Participation: Sensible things participate in ideas.
- Imitation: The sensible world imitates ideas.
- Presence: Sensible things have something of the idea within them.
- Purpose: The idea is the ultimate cause of things.