Kant’s Philosophy: Practical Reason, Politics, and Historical Context
Practical Reason Postulates
In Critique of Pure Reason, Kant explores the limits of scientific understanding of metaphysics, proposing that practical reason offers insights into these issues. He identifies three postulates:
- Freedom: The existence of moral facts demonstrates our freedom, forming the foundation of morality.
- Immortality: Moral obligation necessitates an infinite time to achieve a holy will; thus, the soul must be immortal.
- God: Since morality and happiness don’t always align, the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent God is postulated to reward actions from duty.
Political Philosophy
Kant’s historical perspective centers on progress, viewing it as humanity’s liberation. This involves two claims: history hasn’t regressed, and it progresses towards a utopian goal. This progress is marked by humans imposing their dispositions over animals, culminating in a fulfilled socio-political order:
- An enlightened society where humans use reason independently.
- Universal justice, where every citizen is free and respects the laws.
- Guaranteed freedom of citizens, fostering a tolerant society.
- Laws governed by reason, not fear.
- A federation of free states ensuring mutual respect and preventing wars.
Key Philosophical Concepts
Plato’s Ideas
Entities existing in the sensible world, representing true reality. They are eternal, immutable, and universal, existing pre-physically, not as mere thoughts.
Aquinas: Essence and Existence
In any substance, we can distinguish between essence (defining features) and existence (materialization of essence).
Aquinas: Natural Law
Divine order inscribed in human nature, reflecting rational creatures’ participation in eternal law. Human tendencies are naturally imposed.
Descartes: Methodic Doubt
A tool to find the first obvious truth by doubting all knowledge until an indubitable truth is found.
Hume: Impressions
Perceptions originating from the senses: simple (captured in one way) and complex (acquired through multiple senses).
Hume: Ideas
Memories of past impressions: simple (derived from corresponding impressions) and complex (formed from simple ideas).
Historical Context
Kant’s Era (1724-1804)
Kant lived during the Enlightenment, a period marked by absolute monarchies increasingly questioned. The late 18th century saw the rise of bourgeois discontent and events like the French Revolution (1789).
Sociocultural Context
The 18th century maintained traditional economic, political, and social structures, which gradually deteriorated. Society was divided into estates: nobility, clergy, and commons. The bourgeoisie gained political prominence. Population growth, new farming techniques, industrial development, and overseas trade were significant. The bourgeoisie promoted a new vision of a free, strong, and independent citizenry, uniting ethics and politics.
In art, the Enlightenment spirit manifested in classical music, with composers like Mozart and Beethoven. German literature saw the rise of Sturm und Drang, a precursor to Romanticism.
The Industrial Revolution began in England, spreading across Europe and North America, marked by the invention of the machine.
Philosophical Framework
The Enlightenment mentality was deeply rooted in the European intellectual elite. It originated from the scientific and intellectual revolutions of the previous century, influenced by Locke, Newton, Descartes, and Bacon.
The Enlightenment was the ideology of the bourgeoisie, seeking political and social change through revolution. Education was key, and the idea of progress was central.
The Enlightenment varied across Europe. Britain focused on religious tolerance and experimental methods. France emphasized political and social dimensions, notably through the Encyclopedists. Germany, influenced by France, saw Kant limit Enlightenment optimism with his critical philosophy.
The Enlightenment’s ideals were reflected in political and legal documents. It promoted critical thinking and radically reshaped traditional metaphysical questions.