Kant’s Philosophy: Reason, Ethics, and Transcendental Idealism
Kant’s Metaphysical Foundations and Critique of Reason
The fundamental text part of Kant’s metaphysics deals with the fundamentals outlined in the critique of reason. He explores the practical use of reason to determine its powers and limits. He names his philosophy “Transcendental Idealism” because it synthesizes empiricism and rationalism. In his theoretical analysis, he questions whether metaphysics is possible, responding by studying scientific laws. Knowledge consists of “synthetic a priori judgments,” which refer to experience and are universal and necessary. How are these judgments possible? They are possible if we admit that experience provides sensations that are organized by a priori structures present in the mind: space and time (in sensibility) and categories (in understanding). The product of this synthesis is the knowledge of phenomenal reality, which contrasts with metaphysical reality. The highest function of reason is to think through ideas (soul, world, and God), but these refer to “noumena” or “things in themselves,” which cannot be known because there are no categorized impressions. Thus, metaphysics is not a science, but it should not be abandoned because it is a natural tendency of human reason.
Kant’s Practical Reason and Ethics
Regarding the practical use of reason, Kant proposes a formal ethics, contrasting with material ethics. Material ethics are heteronomous, starting from a definition of good and using hypothetical means to reach it. The subject works with hypothetical principles that condition their actions, making them not free. Kant’s ethics are autonomous because they contain a formal a priori principle of reason: the categorical imperative, which determines the will to act out of duty. The will implies freedom, depending only on itself and not on external factors. An individual can act “in accordance with duty,” following a particular inclination, or “out of duty,” fulfilling obligations as ordered by the moral law. Only in the latter case does the action have moral value and allow virtue. The imperative is to respect persons as rational beings with freedom. Kant postulates the existence of the soul, immortality, and God as practical postulates of reason, which derive from moral demands. These ideas, though theoretically unprovable, have practical significance in the realm of reason.
Kant’s Place in the Enlightenment and Intellectual Context
Kant’s thought is within the framework of the Enlightenment (18th century). He shared ideals of tolerance, equality, freedom, and liberalism, which are reflected in his works. He favored the American and French Revolutions while being aware of the problems caused by the Industrial Revolution. In politics, he opposed despotism and promoted social reforms. He sympathized with the government of Frederick II of Prussia. In the scientific field, he was influenced by Newton’s physics, which he considered a rigorous model of scientific knowledge. The philosophical context of Kant’s work was dominated by the conflict between rationalists and empiricists. Rationalists believed that knowledge came from principles of reason, while empiricists based knowledge on experience. Kant synthesized both currents with his transcendental approach.
Influences and Legacy of Kant’s Philosophy
Besides the influences of Pietism, rationalism, and empiricism, Kant was influenced by Rousseau’s valuation of human spiritual dignity, Plato’s theory of ideas and intellectualist morality, and Stoic formal ethics. Kant also opposed the traditional proofs for the existence of God. Kant’s enormous repercussions include German Idealism (Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel), which tried to explain reality through reason, neglecting Kant’s empiricist elements. Schopenhauer developed Kantian thought by elevating the will to an absolute value, opposing Kant’s concept of duty. Ortega y Gasset, a neo-Kantian, criticized Kant’s pure reason for a vital reason. Wittgenstein was inspired by Kant’s limits of thought and language. Max Scheler and Sartre proposed material ethics opposed to Kant’s formal ethics. Kant’s defense of freedom, dignity, and autonomy of the human being, and his conception of the limits of science, continue to be relevant to the challenges of the 21st century.