Karl Marx: Life, Philosophy, and Economic Critique
Karl Marx: Life and Context
Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818, in Trier, Germany. He enrolled in university, initially studying law, but later focusing on history and philosophy. He completed his university studies with a thesis on *The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature*. His early ideas were those of an idealist, influenced by Hegel. In Berlin, he became associated with the circle of Left Hegelians, who sought to draw atheistic and revolutionary conclusions from Hegel’s philosophy.
After pursuing his studies, Marx moved to Bonn, intending to become a professor. However, after witnessing Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer being stripped of their academic positions, he was forced to renounce an academic career. During this era, the ideas of the Left Hegelians in Germany were rapidly evolving. Feuerbach began to critique theology, shifting towards materialism, which significantly influenced Marx’s doctrines. The Left Hegelians, including Marx, eventually identified as Feuerbachians.
Rhenish bourgeois radicals founded an opposition newspaper, *The Rheinische Zeitung*. Marx and Bauer were among its top contributors, and Marx was appointed editor-in-chief. Under Marx’s leadership, the newspaper’s revolutionary-democratic trend became more pronounced, leading to government censorship. Marx was eventually forced to resign from his position.
Marx’s journalistic activities revealed his lack of in-depth knowledge of political economy, prompting him to dedicate himself to the study of this science. In 1844, he spent some time in Paris with Friedrich Engels, who became his closest friend and collaborator. Together, they developed the theory and tactics of revolutionary proletarian socialism, or communism. Marx was expelled from Paris as a dangerous revolutionary and settled in Brussels.
Subsequently, after being expelled from Brussels, Paris, and Germany, he emigrated to London, where he spent the rest of his life. His living conditions there were extremely difficult. The prevailing doctrines and trends of petty-bourgeois socialism and non-proletarian socialism forced Marx into constant struggle, sometimes even defending himself against personal attacks.
In 1864, the First International (International Workingmen’s Association) was founded in London. It aimed to unify the labor movement across different countries and channel the actions of various forms of non-proletarian socialism. The First International fulfilled its historic mission and gave way to an incomparably wider development of the labor movement worldwide, leading to the formation of mass socialist labor parties.
Marx developed his materialist theory in a series of historical works. His works *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* and *Das Kapital* revolutionized economic science. Marx died on March 14, 1883.
Historical and Philosophical Context of Marx’s Thought
To understand Marx’s philosophical thinking, we must consider several aspects that conditioned the genesis of his thought:
- The conservative political stance supported by King Frederick William IV of Prussia.
- The spread of progressive French ideas in southern Germany after the 1830 revolution in France, which provoked a reaction in the German court, leading to increased censorship and a more stringent police regime.
- Limited industrialization in the first half of the 19th century, where philosophical activity became central, replacing revolutionary action in the streets. In Trier, the power of the press and pamphlets was significant.
- From the late 18th century until the Russian Revolution, Europe witnessed a series of revolutionary movements in which Marx played a leading role.
- Although the socioeconomic situation varied greatly across countries, there was a general increase in industrialization, culminating in the Industrial Revolution in England. This context shaped the theoretical and practical analyses of capitalism made by both Marx and Engels.
- The existence of vast inequalities between the bourgeoisie and the working class.
- The consolidation of the Industrial Revolution and liberal bourgeois revolutions, along with the cultural movements of Romanticism and Realism, also influenced Marx’s historical perspective.
Marx’s Intellectual Development and Key Works
The text for comment is an excerpt from the preface of *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*, which belongs to the second period of Marx’s thought, during his time in London. As you can see, the title is a critique and not a finished analysis of the economy. It is an interpretation that criticizes the political economy of the capitalist system developed by the bourgeoisie.
The preface begins by outlining the structure of the work and the difficulties encountered in its publication. It then explains why an initially planned introduction was replaced with a shorter one. This preface serves as a brief intellectual autobiography and a historical overview of Marx’s materialist thesis.
Marx’s Other Notable Works
*The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature* (1841)
Richest and Most Fruitful Intellectual Stage (1843-1848)
During this period, Marx worked with *The Rheinische Zeitung* and the *Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher* (Franco-German Annals). He had decisive encounters with:
- Revolutionary and socialist groups
- German exiled workers
- Friedrich Engels, who, along with German philosophy, French socialism (Owen, Fourier, Saint-Simon), and English political economy (Adam Smith, David Ricardo), became a fundamental source of knowledge for Marx.
Key works from this period include:
- *Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right*
- *The Holy Family* and *The German Ideology*
- *Theses on Feuerbach*
- *The Communist Manifesto*
Last Stage in London
- *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*
- *Das Kapital*