Karl Marx: Philosophy, Economics, and Social Impact
Karl Marx
1. Historical Context – Social
The period is marked by the bourgeois revolutions of 1848 and 1871. A result of a crisis period starting in 1845, these revolutions signaled the definitive end of the old regime in Europe. The 1871 revolution had contrasting outcomes: Germany’s unification and entry into the bourgeois economic and political order, while France experienced a proletarian uprising, marking the first attempt at a workers’ government in Europe.
Simultaneously, developing capitalism and the emergence of the proletariat led to the formation of early socialist and communist movements.
2. Cultural Context
Key developments include Seebeck’s discovery of thermoelectricity, Fresnel’s exposition of the wave theory of light, and advancements in quantum mechanics. Most importantly, this era saw Darwin’s theory of evolution and the development of psychology and sociology.
The latter third of the century witnessed the rise of artistic avant-garde movements, the birth of cinema, and Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum, which attempted to reconcile the labor movement with a reformed capitalist system.
3. Philosophical Context
The 19th century began under the shadow of Kantian philosophy. However, new theories emerged, leading to a continuous rise of competing schools of thought. German Idealism, with Hegel as its central figure, and positivism, particularly in the Anglo world, were prominent in the first half. The latter half was dominated by the thought of Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche.
4. Reality: Dialectics
Marx’s dialectic inverts Hegel’s ideas. For Marx, the dialectic operates in reality, driving history and society towards human liberation. Marx’s dialectic is open-ended and transformative, unlike Hegel’s closed system where contradictions serve the Absolute Spirit. Marx’s key category is contradiction, reflecting an unfinished history in constant transformation.
5. Knowledge
Marx’s theory of knowledge centers on “ideology,” understood as a false consciousness of reality. He argued that cultural, artistic, and intellectual works are not products of pure spirit but are determined by economic relations. Presenting these as independent ideas creates false consciousness.
6. The Human Condition: Alienation
Marx, in his Paris Manuscripts, described alienation as a consequence of capitalist production, not a personal feeling. It’s the relationship between producers and their products, which become independent of them. This leads to self-alienation, indifference to others, and a disconnect from one’s true self.
Four dimensions of alienation exist: from the product of work, from the act of production, from nature, and from other humans. Marx believed private ownership of the means of production is the primary source of alienation.
7. God and Religion
Marx argued that God doesn’t exist and religion is an ideology, a tool of the ruling class to impose a false consciousness. He famously called religion the “opium of the people.”