Karl Marx’s Philosophy, Economics, and Social Theory
Karl Marx: A Socioeconomic and Political Thinker
German philosopher Karl Marx focused on socioeconomic and political issues, offering an alternative perspective. He viewed philosophy as a tool for historical progress. Marx’s philosophy was influenced by three key factors.
Critique of Feuerbach
While agreeing with Feuerbach, Marx believed his critique was insufficient. Marx criticized Feuerbach for viewing history as static, while Marx saw it as dynamic.
Critique of Political Economy
The 18th-century critique of political economy, which birthed modern economics and is related to capitalism, rests on two claims:
- Labor is the source of wealth.
- Supply and demand regulate the economic system.
Marx’s economic theory is a radical critique of liberalism, stemming from two errors:
- The supply-and-demand system exploits workers and leads to alienation.
- Workers can only offer their labor, which is bought by the owners of production.
The law of supply and demand leads to continuous exploitation of the proletariat. Increased competition lowers the price of goods, reducing production costs and worsening working conditions. This exploitation intensifies with capitalism’s expansion, leading to systemic crisis.
Critique of Utopian Socialism
Utopian socialism combines capitalism with social theories, economic policies, and Enlightenment ideals. Marx rejected it because:
- Like all utopian idealist theories, it lacks a scientific basis in history.
- Its theories are ideological, serving the ruling class.
Marx’s critical analysis of capitalism aimed to uncover its inherent laws, leading to his theory of scientific socialism.
The Marxist Concept of Ideology
Ideology comprises the beliefs that shape culture. Ideological forms reflect material conditions but distort them through alienation. This false consciousness becomes a tool of oppression. Worldviews are not neutral; they conceal power interests, which philosophers aim to expose. Initially, philosophy expressed confidence in reason, but later, it became suspicious and irrational, a mask for hidden interests.
Alienation
Linked to ideology is alienation, a state of being. Work, a human activity to produce, is the human essence. It has subjective and objective poles, the latter being the object produced. Through work, the worker externalizes themselves. This action, belonging to human nature, is inherently positive. However, the produced object becomes alienating when it ceases to belong to the worker and becomes another’s property.
Alienation is not natural but a product of societal organization. While always present, it reaches its peak under capitalism. Marx’s approach to alienation has two aspects:
- Theoretical: Understanding the socioeconomic causes of alienation.
- Practical: Transforming reality through political struggle to overcome capitalism.
Marxist Anthropology
Humans are producers, and work is their essence. Marx’s thesis explains this concept of human nature:
- Humans are immediately natural beings: They have needs to fulfill, but unlike other beings, they satisfy these through work. Work separates humans from nature.
- Humans are social beings: They are not just individuals but social animals.
- Humans are historical beings: There is no fixed human nature. Humans realize themselves through history, transforming nature into human essence. This leads to the disappearance of social classes and the establishment of a communist society.
Marxist Humanism
Marx’s humanism aims to establish a socio-political order where human nature can be fully realized. Marxist humanism has a triple meaning:
- It promotes criticism and struggle against alienation, upholding Enlightenment ideals.
- It denies the existence of a being separate from and superior to nature; it is atheistic.
- It considers humans as subjects of history, the result of historical evolution.
Historical Materialism
The mode of production, the general form of society’s economic structure, is the foundation of human reality. Historical materialism is Marx’s theory of world history, explaining the evolution of modes of production.
Economic Structure of Society
The economic structure, the system of productive organization, is the fundamental layer of every society. It consists of:
- Forces of production: The source of economic activity.
- Social relations of production: Relationships between humans generated by the productive forces, forming the current societal structure.
Superstructure
Built upon the economic base is a superstructure of social consciousness, a system of institutions reflecting individuals’ situations. It’s a web of social formations where humans become aware of and resolve conflicts. The economic infrastructure drives history.
Evolution of Modes of Production
For Marx, history begins with the division of labor and the means of social production. Ownership of wealth divides society into exploiting and exploited classes, leading to class struggle. Conflicts within the economic structure cause the forces of production to break the mold of social organization, propelling historical progress through different forms of economic activity.
The Capitalist Mode of Production
Capitalism has a self-destructive dynamic. Higher capital allows employers to pay lower wages and become richer. This concentrates private ownership, ultimately leading to capitalism’s demise. The proletarian revolution will end capitalism and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat.