Key Changes and Reigns: 15th-16th Century Europe and Spain
Changes in the 15th Century
Economic Changes
- Agricultural production increased: there was an increase in the amount of land under cultivation. The three-field system was maintained. The main crops were cereals. Agriculture and livestock continued to be the main economic activity.
- Intensified commercial activity: agricultural production resulted in surpluses, and these were sold at markets and fairs.
- Expansion of craftsmanship, controlled by guilds. Introduction of the domestic system: peasants made products and sold them in local markets.
- New products were brought to Europe: spices, foods, and precious metals.
- Development of mercantilism.
Social Changes
The economic prosperity resulted in an increase in population and a reduction in epidemics. Society in the cities developed, becoming one of the characteristics of the Early Modern Age. The Estates of the Realm were maintained. The privileged continued to be the clergy and nobility; they did not pay taxes or work. The non-privileged were the bourgeoisie and peasants, who continued to be the largest group. They worked and paid taxes. The bourgeoisie were the city inhabitants, and they gained political influence; they were bankers, merchants, officials, and artists. Peasants included beggars and vagabonds that lived on charity.
Cultural Changes
At the beginning of the Early Modern Age, there were significant developments in thinking and science. Ideas spread rapidly thanks to the printing press, invented by Gutenberg in 1455.
Humanism Characteristics
- Renewed interest in classical culture: classical Greek and Roman culture and philosophy became the point of reference for intellectual and artistic activity.
- Anthropocentrism: Humans became the center of philosophical reflection and artistic creation. They abandoned theocentrism and viewed reality without religion.
- Optimism and creativity: Religious beliefs that caused fear were changed by ones offering a better life. Creativity was based on better techniques and numerous inventions.
- Desire for knowledge: Humanists possessed great curiosity and did not limit their knowledge to a special area; they learned about everything.
- Critical thinking: While knowledge was based on tradition and sacred texts, Humanism tried to explain natural phenomena with reason, research, and experimentation.
Catholic Monarchs Policy
Domestic Policy Objectives | Domestic Policy Measures |
|---|---|
| To control the power of the nobility. | The Catholic Monarchs created a powerful army to subdue the nobility. Military orders were placed under royal control. |
| To maintain a strong position of power in relation to other kingdoms. | The Catholic Monarchs created diplomatic corps to establish alliances with other kingdoms. |
| To consolidate their authority. | The Catholic Monarchs centralized power by creating new institutions serving the Catholic Monarchs. |
| To administer the kingdom’s resources more effectively. | The royal treasury (*Hacienda*) gained more power to control tax collection. The position of viceroy (*virrey*) was created to represent the monarchs in their absence. Councils of experts (*ministros*) were appointed to advise the Catholic Monarchs. They reformed the judicial system in Castilla, establishing *audiencias* (royal courts) to administer justice. |
Reign of Carlos V
Domestic Policy: Revolts
Revolt of the Comuneros | Revolt of the Germanías |
|---|---|
| It was in the Crown of Castilla, in 1520-1521. Lower nobility and bourgeoisie from the cities against the king’s representatives and the high nobility. They rose up because Carlos V used Castilian taxes to finance his appointment as Holy Roman Emperor. Carlos V was supported by the government and high nobility. The result was that the monarchy became more powerful. | It was in the Crown of Aragón, in 1519-1523. Bourgeoisie and peasants against nobility. They rose up because the bourgeoisie and peasants were tired of abuses by the nobility and they wanted to improve their economic conditions and obtain political power. The result was that the monarchy became more powerful. |
Foreign Policy Conflicts
Carlos V vs France | Carlos V vs Ottomans | Carlos V vs German Princes |
|---|---|---|
| It was during the 16th century, and happened because the Kingdom of France was surrounded by Carlos V’s territories, so Francis I wanted to weaken Carlos V’s power. As a result, Francis I was defeated at the Battle of Pavia (1525), but there wasn’t a clear victor. | It was during the 16th century, and happened because the Ottoman Empire wanted to expand its territories and take control over the Mediterranean. As a result, the Christian fleet was defeated and the Ottomans maintained control of the Mediterranean, but they did not expand their territory. | 16th century, and happened because the German Protestant princes wanted religious and political freedom. Carlos V wanted to stop the expansion of Protestantism. As a result, Carlos V defeated them in Mühlberg (1547). They signed the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. The Protestant German princes obtained religious freedom, but they did not obtain political freedom. |
Reign of Felipe II
Foreign Policy Conflicts
| Opponents | When? | Objective | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Felipe II against France | During the 16th century | To weaken the power of each other. | After the French were defeated in the Battle of San Quintín, a civil war broke out between Catholics and Huguenots. The conflict ended in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots religious freedom. |
| Felipe II against the Ottoman Empire | Until 1571 | To end Ottoman control over the Mediterranean. | Felipe II organized the Holy League (Spain, Venice, and the Pope), and the Ottomans were finally defeated in the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571). |
| Felipe II against the German Protestant princes. | 1568-1648 | To stop the spread of Protestantism. | The northern provinces of the Low Countries rose up against Felipe II, proclaiming their independence from the Spanish Crown in 1581, creating the United Provinces (modern Netherlands). Although Felipe II maintained control of the southern territories, Flanders (modern Belgium and Luxembourg), the war lasted until 1648 (Thirty Years’ War). |
| Felipe II against England | Until 1588 | To depose Queen Elizabeth I. | Queen Elizabeth I supported English privateers against Spanish ships from America as well as the Protestant rebels in the Low Countries. Felipe II formed a powerful fleet (the Spanish Armada) to transport troops from Portugal and Flanders, invade England, and depose the queen, but it was defeated. |
Age of Exploration Voyages
- 1497 Giovanni Caboto (Italian), commissioned by the Kingdom of England. He reached Newfoundland (*Terranova*).
- 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral, commissioned by the Kingdom of Portugal. He discovered the Eastern coast of Brazil.
- 1513 Vasco Núñez de Balboa. He crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean.
- 1519-1522 Fernando Magallanes (Portuguese) and Juan Sebastián Elcano. First circumnavigation.
- 1519-1521 Hernán Cortés. He completed the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
- 1524 Giovanni da Verrazzano, commissioned by the Kingdom of France. He explored the Atlantic coast of North America.
- 1528 Pánfilo Narváez. He began to explore Florida.
- 1531-1533 Francisco Pizarro. He conquered the Inca Empire.
- 1536 Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. He completed his journey across the south of North America.
- 1540 Hernando de Soto. He crossed the Mississippi river.
- 1542 Francisco de Orellana. He reached the mouth of the Amazon river.