Key Concepts in Human Geography and Environmental Studies
Demography and Population Dynamics
Demography: The study of population characteristics—size, structure, distribution, and changes over time. Population Growth: Increase in population due to birth rates, death rates, and migration. Natural Increase: Growth from the difference between births and deaths, excluding migration. Zero Population Growth: Births equal deaths, resulting in no population growth. Total Fertility: The average number of children a woman is expected to have. Population Pyramid: A graphical representation of age and sex distribution in a population.
Major Population Clusters
Four Great Population Clusters:
- East Asia (China, Japan)
- South Asia (India, Pakistan)
- Europe
- Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Vietnam)
Demographic Equation: Population Change = (Births – Deaths) + (Immigration – Emigration). Causes of Declining Birth Rates: Education, contraception, economic development, urbanization. HIV/AIDS Epidemic: A health crisis impacting population growth and life expectancy. Population Implosion: Significant population decline due to low fertility or migration. Dependency Ratio: Ratio of dependents (0-14, 65+) to the working-age population (15-64). Carrying Capacity: The maximum population an environment can sustain.
Cultural Geography
Culture: Shared beliefs, customs, and social institutions influencing behavior. Culture Region: An area where people share cultural traits (e.g., language, religion). Culture Realm: A large region with similar cultural systems (e.g., Latin American, Islamic). Cultural Traits: Specific elements of culture (e.g., rituals, language). Cultural Lag: The delay between new innovations and cultural adaptation. Melting Pot: A society where diverse cultures blend into a unified culture. Assimilation: A minority culture adopts the dominant culture’s traits. Cultural Landscape: The visible imprint of human activity on the environment. Cultural Integration: The blending of cultural elements into a cohesive system.
Language and Cultural Change
Language: A system of communication used to convey ideas. Cultural Divergence: Cultures become distinct through separation or isolation. Cultural Convergence: Cultures become similar through interaction. Environmental Determinism: The belief that the environment determines cultural development. Amalgamation Theory: Cultures merge into a new hybrid culture.
Top Four Languages
- Mandarin Chinese
- English
- Hindi
- Spanish
Forces Diffusing English: Colonization, globalization, trade, media, internet.
Migration and Interaction
Critical Distance: The distance beyond which travel costs affect interaction. Territoriality: The tendency to claim and defend a specific area. Contagious Diffusion: The rapid spread of an idea or innovation. Distance Decay: Interaction decreases as distance increases. Place Utility: The perceived value of a location based on accessibility and resources. Channelized Migration: Migration along established routes due to ties. Chain Migration: Migration following others from the same community. Diffusion: The spread of ideas, innovations, or cultural traits. Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of global economies and cultures. Hierarchical Diffusion: The spread of innovation from larger to smaller areas.
Barriers and Factors Influencing Migration
Barriers to Interaction: Obstacles like physical, cultural, or political factors. Transnational Corporation: A company operating in multiple countries, influencing globalization. Push/Pull Factors:
- Push: Factors driving people to leave (e.g., conflict, lack of jobs).
- Pull: Factors attracting people (e.g., better opportunities, safety).
Forced vs. Voluntary Migration:
- Forced: Driven by external factors (e.g., war, persecution).
- Voluntary: Chosen for reasons like work or family.
Political Geography
Nation: A group with shared cultural traits and identity. Nation-State: A political unit where a nation’s boundaries align with a state’s boundaries (e.g., Japan). Gerrymandering: Manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor a group. Nationalism: Strong loyalty and pride in one’s nation. Devolution: The transfer of power from central to local governments. Centrifugal Force: Divides a state (e.g., ethnic conflict). Centripetal Force: Unifies a state (e.g., shared language, identity). Core Area: The central, most politically and economically influential region. Political Geography: The study of the spatial organization of politics. Stateless Nation: A cultural group without its own recognized state (e.g., Kurds). United Nations (UN): An international organization promoting peace and cooperation. Supranational Organizations: Entities like the EU or NATO formed by multiple countries working together.
Agriculture and Economic Activities
Nomadic Herding: Movement with livestock to find grazing land. Subsistence Agriculture: Farming to meet the farmer’s own needs. Primary Activity: Direct extraction of natural resources (e.g., farming, mining). Aquaculture: The cultivation of aquatic organisms for food. Tertiary Activities: Service industries (e.g., retail, healthcare). Plantation: Large-scale farming for a single crop, often for export. Von Thünen Model: Agricultural land use based on transportation costs and land rent.
Types of Subsistence Agriculture
Extensive vs. Intensive Subsistence:
- Extensive: Large areas, minimal labor (e.g., shifting cultivation).
- Intensive: Small plots, high labor input (e.g., rice paddies).
Shifting Cultivation: Farming where land is cleared and left fallow after use. Sustainable Agriculture: Farming practices that maintain productivity while protecting the environment.
Economic Geography
Planned Economies: Economies controlled by the government, seen in socialist/communist states. Secondary Activities: Processing raw materials into finished goods. Manufacturing Industries: Industries transforming raw materials into products. Weber’s Least-Cost Theory: Explains industrial location based on transport costs, labor costs, and agglomeration economies.
Environmental Studies
Ecology: The study of organism-environment interactions. Biosphere: Earth’s life-supporting ecosystems. Food Chain: A linear sequence of energy transfer between organisms. Ozone: Gas absorbing UV radiation (stratospheric) or harmful at ground level. Eutrophication: Nutrient overload in water bodies leading to algae growth. IPAT Equation: Environmental impact = Population × Affluence × Technology. Hydrologic Cycle: Water’s continuous movement on, above, and below Earth’s surface. Air Pollution: Harmful substances in the atmosphere. Greenhouse Effect: The trapping of heat by greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere. Montreal Protocol (1987): A treaty to phase out substances depleting the ozone layer.