Key Concepts in International Relations: Definitions & Examples
Key International Relations Terms: Definitions and Examples
Here are definitions and examples of key terms in international relations:
Absolute / Relative Gains: These terms refer to different ways of understanding the benefits of cooperation. Absolute gains focus on whether a state benefits at all from a cooperative arrangement, regardless of whether other states benefit more or less. Relative gains, on the other hand, focus on how much a state benefits compared to other states. For realists, states are primarily concerned with relative gains as they seek to maintain or enhance their position in the international system.
Anarchy: In international relations, anarchy refers to the absence of a central political authority above states. This does not necessarily imply chaos; rather, it highlights the self-help system where states must rely on their resources and strategies to ensure their survival and pursue their interests. Realists see anarchy as a defining feature of international politics, leading to competition and the potential for conflict.
Balance of Power: This concept, central to realist theory, suggests that states will act to prevent any one state from dominating the international system. States achieve balance through internal balancing by building up their own military and economic capabilities, and external balancing by forming alliances with other states. The balance of power mechanism, while not always successful, is seen as a way to mitigate the risks of conflict in an anarchic system.
BRICS: This acronym refers to Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, a group of rising powers in the international system. These countries have gained prominence due to their large populations, growing economies, and increasing influence in international affairs.
Constitutive Rule: Constitutive rules define the game and its activities, shaping the identities and interests of actors and defining legitimate actions. They create the framework within which social interactions occur. Example: The concept of sovereignty in international relations establishes the basic identity of states as independent and autonomous actors.
Credible Commitment: This concept refers to the ability of a state to convincingly demonstrate its willingness to follow through on its commitments, such as treaties or alliances. Credibility depends on a state’s reputation, its capabilities, and the perceived costs of backing down from its promises. A credible commitment enhances a state’s influence and ability to deter others.
Dependency Theory: This theory argues that the structure of the global economy perpetuates inequality between developed and developing countries. It suggests that developing countries are dependent on developed countries for trade, investment, and technology, which keeps them in a subordinate position and hinders their economic development.
Deterrence: Deterrence involves using threats of punishment to discourage an adversary from taking a particular action. It seeks to influence an opponent’s decision-making by raising the perceived costs and risks of aggression. Nuclear deterrence, which relies on the threat of nuclear retaliation, is a prominent example of this concept.
Empire: An empire is a hierarchical political entity encompassing multiple, distinct political units under a single, dominant power. Historical examples include the Roman Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the British Empire.
Neo-imperialism: This term refers to informal methods of control and influence exerted by powerful states over weaker ones, often economic or cultural in nature. It suggests that even after formal colonialism has ended, former colonial powers or developed countries continue to exert dominance over less developed countries, perpetuating inequality and dependency.
Free Trade
As theory: Free trade theory argues that removing barriers to trade, such as tariffs and quotas, will maximize global welfare. It assumes that countries will specialize in producing goods and services where they have a comparative advantage, leading to greater efficiency and economic growth for all.
As policy: Free trade policies involve reducing or eliminating trade barriers to facilitate the flow of goods and services across borders. Examples include the creation of free trade areas like the European Union or the negotiation of multilateral trade agreements under the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Fundamental Units: In international relations theory, fundamental units refer to the primary actors that shape international politics. Realists typically view states as the most important actors, while liberal and constructivist approaches consider a wider range of actors, including international organizations, non-state actors, and individuals.
Hegemon: A hegemon is a dominant state that holds a preponderance of power in the international system. It can influence the rules and norms of international behavior and often plays a leading role in maintaining international order. Examples include the United States in the post-Cold War era.
Hegemonic Stability Theory: This theory argues that the presence of a hegemon in the international system promotes stability and cooperation. It suggests that the hegemon can provide public goods, such as security or a stable international monetary system, which benefit all states. However, the theory also acknowledges that hegemony can decline, potentially leading to instability and conflict.
Hierarchy: Hierarchy refers to a system of ranked order where some actors hold more power and authority than others. In international relations, hierarchy can exist at different levels, such as among states within a region or within international organizations.
Humanitarian Intervention: This concept refers to the use of military force by external actors to prevent or stop human rights violations within a sovereign state. The principle of humanitarian intervention is controversial, as it raises questions about state sovereignty and the legitimacy of external intervention.
International Organizations: These are institutions with formal procedures and membership from three or more countries. They can be intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations or the WTO, or international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) like Amnesty International or Greenpeace. International organizations play a role in managing global issues, promoting cooperation, and shaping international norms.
Intersubjective: This term refers to shared understandings or meanings that exist between actors. Constructivists emphasize the importance of intersubjective understandings in shaping state behavior and international relations. For example, the concept of human rights relies on shared understandings about the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals.
Liberal International Order: This refers to a rules-based international system that emphasizes multilateralism, cooperation, and the promotion of liberal values such as democracy, human rights, and free trade. The post-World War II era is often seen as a period of liberal international order, with institutions like the UN and the Bretton Woods system playing key roles.
Logic of Appropriateness: This logic suggests that actors make decisions based on what is considered legitimate and the right thing to do within their social context, rather than solely on a cost-benefit analysis. Constructivists highlight the logic of appropriateness in explaining state behavior, arguing that norms and identities shape how states define their interests and choose their actions. Example: A state might choose to join a humanitarian intervention not because of a direct material benefit, but because it sees intervention as the morally right action to take.
Logic of Consequences: This logic suggests that actors make decisions based on a rational calculation of costs and benefits, seeking to maximize their gains and minimize their losses. This logic is central to realist and rational choice theories. For example, a state might choose to ally with a powerful neighbor to deter aggression, even if it dislikes its neighbor’s political system.
Means of Production: In Marxist theory, the means of production refer to the resources and technologies used to produce goods and services. These include factories, machinery, raw materials, and labor. The ownership and control of the means of production are central to Marxist analyses of class relations and economic power.
Multilateralism: This refers to cooperation among three or more states based on reciprocally binding rules of conduct. Multilateralism often involves international institutions and agreements, and it contrasts with unilateral action by individual states. Examples include the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.
Non-State Actor: This broad term refers to any actor in international relations that is not a state. This includes international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), terrorist groups, and individuals. Non-state actors can have significant influence in various issue areas.
Norm
Norm Cycle: This concept, developed by Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, describes the stages through which a norm evolves and becomes accepted in international relations. It typically involves norm emergence championed by norm entrepreneurs, norm cascade as the norm spreads and gains broader acceptance, and norm internalization as the norm becomes taken for granted. Example: The norm against the use of chemical weapons has gone through these stages, with early advocacy by activists and NGOs, followed by widespread condemnation of chemical weapon use and the eventual establishment of international treaties banning such weapons.
Norm Entrepreneur: A norm entrepreneur is an individual or organization that actively promotes a new norm, seeking to persuade other actors to adopt it. They often play a key role in the early stages of a norm cycle, raising awareness, framing the issue, and mobilizing support. Example: Individuals like human rights activist Malala Yousafzai or organizations like Amnesty International can be considered norm entrepreneurs in their advocacy for specific human rights norms.
Peacekeeping: Peacekeeping involves the deployment of international personnel, usually under the auspices of the United Nations, to help maintain peace and security in conflict zones. Peacekeeping missions typically require the consent of all parties to the conflict and can involve tasks such as monitoring ceasefires, facilitating negotiations, and providing humanitarian assistance.
Positive-Sum / Zero-Sum: These terms refer to different ways of understanding the distribution of benefits in interactions. A positive-sum interaction means that all participants can potentially gain from the interaction, while a zero-sum interaction means that one actor’s gain necessarily comes at the expense of another actor’s loss. Liberal theorists often see international trade as a positive-sum game, while realists tend to view international politics as more zero-sum in nature.
Power
Material: Material power refers to tangible resources that a state possesses, such as military capabilities, economic strength, and population size. Realists emphasize the importance of material power in international relations. Example: The size and technological sophistication of a country’s military are indicators of its material power.
Normative: Normative power relates to the ability of a state to influence others through the legitimacy of its values and ideas. It involves setting international agendas and shaping global norms. Example: A country that consistently advocates for human rights and democracy might exert normative power by shaping international perceptions and influencing the behavior of other states.
Structural: Structural power refers to the ability of a state to shape the rules and institutions of the international system to its advantage. It involves influencing the structure of global governance and setting the terms of international interactions. Example: A powerful country might use its structural power to influence the decision-making processes of international organizations like the WTO or the IMF.
Discourse: Discourse power relates to the ability to shape and control language and narratives to define and frame issues in ways that favor one’s interests. Example: A state might use discourse power to frame a conflict in terms of self-defense, influencing international public opinion and justifying its actions.
Rational
Rational Actor: A rational actor is an individual or entity that makes decisions based on a calculation of costs and benefits, seeking to maximize their interests and achieve their goals.
Rational Choice: Rational choice theory assumes that actors are rational and make decisions based on logical assessments of the best means to achieve their ends. It seeks to explain and predict behavior based on this assumption of rationality.
Realpolitik: This German term, often translated as “politics of realism,” emphasizes the pursuit of national interests and the use of power to achieve them. It prioritizes pragmatic considerations over ethical concerns and often involves a willingness to use force or coercion to achieve state objectives.
Recognition
Recognition of States: Recognition of states in international law refers to the act by which one state formally acknowledges the existence and sovereignty of another state. Recognition has legal and political consequences, establishing formal diplomatic relations and affirming the recognized state’s status in the international system.
Recognition Struggles: Recognition struggles refer to efforts by marginalized groups to gain recognition of their identity, rights, and legitimacy. These struggles can be domestic or international in scope and often involve challenging existing power structures and social norms.
Regime: In international relations, a regime refers to a set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures that govern behavior in a particular issue area. Regimes can be formal, as in the case of international treaties, or informal, based on shared understandings and practices. Example: The nuclear non-proliferation regime, consisting of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and various related agreements, seeks to limit the spread of nuclear weapons and regulate their development and use.
Regulative Rule: Unlike constitutive rules, which define the game and its players, regulative rules guide actions within an already existing system, shaping the rules of the game. They specify how actors should behave within established structures and institutions. Example: Traffic laws are regulative rules; they do not create the concept of driving or cars, but they regulate how drivers should behave on the road.
Rising Power: A rising power is a state that is increasing its power and influence in the international system. Rising powers often challenge existing power structures and seek to reshape international norms and institutions to reflect their interests. Examples include China and India in the contemporary era.
Security
Collective Security: Collective security refers to an arrangement where states agree to cooperate to defend each other against aggression. It is based on the principle that an attack on one state is considered an attack on all, triggering a collective response. Example: The League of Nations and the United Nations were founded on the principle of collective security, although their effectiveness in practice has been debated.
Human Security: Human security shifts the focus from the security of states to the security of individuals. It encompasses a wider range of threats, including poverty, hunger, disease, environmental degradation, and human rights violations.
Security Dilemma: This concept describes a situation where one state’s efforts to increase its own security can lead other states to feel threatened, prompting them to take similar measures. This can lead to a spiral of insecurity and arms races, even if none of the states have aggressive intentions.
Securitization: Securitization refers to the process by which an issue is framed as a security threat, justifying extraordinary measures and the use of force. It involves elevating an issue above normal politics and presenting it as an existential danger requiring urgent action. Example: The “war on terror” following the 9/11 attacks is an example of securitization, as it framed terrorism as an existential threat justifying significant military and legal actions.
Social Fact: A social fact is a way of thinking or acting that is external to individuals and constrains their behavior. It is a product of social structures and norms and has the power to shape individual choices. Example: The concept of money is a social fact; it has no inherent value, but its existence and acceptance within society shape economic behavior and interactions.
Sovereignty: In international relations, sovereignty refers to the principle that a state has supreme authority within its territorial boundaries and is free from external interference in its domestic affairs. The concept of sovereignty is central to the modern state system but is also subject to debates about its limits and responsibilities, particularly in the context of humanitarian intervention.
Stability-Instability Paradox: This paradox suggests that the stability created by nuclear deterrence at the strategic level might lead to instability at lower levels of conflict. The idea is that states might be more willing to engage in conventional conflicts or support proxy wars if they believe that the risk of nuclear escalation is low.
State
Nation-State: A nation-state is a political community in which the state claims legitimacy on the grounds that it represents a particular nation, a group of people who share a common identity. The concept of the nation-state assumes a close correspondence between the state’s territorial boundaries and the nation it claims to represent, but in reality, few states perfectly embody this ideal.
The Modern/Rational State: The modern state is characterized by bureaucracy, a centralized government, and a claim to sovereignty within its territory. The concept of the rational state assumes that states act in a goal-oriented and strategic manner to pursue their interests.
Theory
Causal: A causal theory seeks to explain cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It aims to identify factors that produce specific outcomes. For example, a causal theory might explain war as a result of economic competition between states.
Normative: A normative theory focuses on what ought to be rather than what is. It deals with moral and ethical principles and seeks to prescribe how actors should behave. For example, a normative theory might argue that states have a moral obligation to intervene in cases of genocide.
Interpretive: An interpretive theory seeks to understand the meaning and significance of social phenomena. It focuses on the interpretation of actions and events and how they are shaped by shared understandings and social contexts. For example, an interpretive theory might analyze how different cultures understand the concept of war.
Tragedy of the Commons: This concept describes a situation where individuals, acting rationally in their self-interest, overuse a shared resource, leading to its depletion and harming the collective good. Example: Overfishing in international waters, where individual fishing boats maximize their catches, leading to a decline in fish stocks that harms the long-term sustainability of the fishing industry.
Treaty: A treaty is a formal, legally binding agreement between states. Treaties can cover a wide range of issues, from trade and security to environmental protection and human rights. Example: The Paris Agreement is a multilateral treaty aimed at addressing climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Unipolar/Bipolar/Multipolar System: These terms describe different distributions of power in the international system. A unipolar system has one dominant power, a bipolar system has two major powers, and a multipolar system has three or more major powers. Example: The Cold War era, with the US and the Soviet Union as the two superpowers, is considered a bipolar system.
War
Interstate/Intrastate: An interstate war is a conflict between two or more sovereign states, while an intrastate war (also called a civil war) is a conflict within a single state. Example: World War II was an interstate war, while the Syrian Civil War is an intrastate war.
Counterinsurgency: Counterinsurgency refers to military and political actions taken to defeat an insurgency, a rebellion or uprising against an established government. It often involves a combination of military force, political reforms, and efforts to win the support of the population.
Proxy: A proxy war is a conflict where major powers support opposing sides in a conflict without directly engaging each other militarily. They use other actors, often non-state actors or weaker states, to fight on their behalf. Example: The Cold War saw several proxy wars, such as the conflicts in Korea and Vietnam, where the US and the Soviet Union supported opposing sides.
Bargaining Theory of …: Bargaining theory suggests that wars are the result of failed negotiations between states. It assumes that states are rational actors that would prefer to resolve their disputes peacefully but might resort to war if they cannot reach a mutually acceptable agreement through bargaining.
World Systems Theory
Core: World systems theory divides the world into core, periphery, and semi-periphery regions. Core regions are the most developed and economically powerful, dominating global trade and finance. Example: The United States, Western Europe, and Japan are considered core regions.
Periphery: Periphery regions are the least developed and economically dependent, often relying on the export of raw materials and low-wage labor to core regions. They are subject to exploitation and unequal exchange within the global capitalist system. Example: Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Latin America are considered periphery regions.